Wilhelm von Humboldt, the German educationist and language scholar. Humboldt's ideas, notably on the relationship between language, thought and culture, prefigure modern linguistic study. His work includes studies of the Basque language and the languages of Java.
The World's Languages (1 of 4)
No one is certain how many living languages there are in the world, but it is likely that the number exceeds 5000. Nor has any scholar been able to account for the fact that languages outnumber races by at least one thousand to one. Each world language is unique in that each has its own system of sounds, words and structures, and yet each is related either closely or distantly to other languages found in the same part of the world. Thus English, French, Igbo and Yoruba are all distinct languages, but English and French share many linguistic features with each other and with other languages in Europe, whereas Igbo and Yoruba have more in common with each other and with other African tongues.
The world's languages are as unique as individual people, but like people they can also be classified in terms of families. Tree diagrams such as that illustrated here are often used in descriptions of languages to show the relationships that are thought to exist within language families. The 'tree' shows the main branches of the Indo-European family of languages.
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
9$9q-,1
01TP0
1x,1$0
P,$00
,P0H$
$00,$$
10]ql
P9-0t9
\,9p\
T$-1P
U01d$-0
t0$0H
0x9y%
U-|$0
0`Qp-
$xTx]1
$010$
P]HT,
TT]uM
M)9Q0
t0,Q0
t$\-P^
=y8Q0
x-9L9
TVTQT
t\P,l
1P0t\
P-L\-
T--P]
09xt`
8aQ]M9x]
x-0t1
xTxP9
uH9,)x
u0U\yPx
x9Tt9
(0$x,
1108-
(`QUP
uPU1H
tTlTU,
u8q,P
y-\yT
1t9t1UT
-TT,,Q
UxUx,1
P81xUH
L9xxT
xTxx9
x1TyQL
Tx1ux
H,pPPp$
0\]x$P
-T9u-LP,
x-9q8
tL8TQ8
L0$xUtx
y-QTx
T-U\0
tLtTt]
Ux1LI,x
t\V1TT
PxI0t
xt,TP
Tx1u1
-P91T
,]-,x
THTQ-8
x9tLPP
x-0]P
Pp0tLT,`
yUPP0l
8yx1t
0U$H,xlx8
y,pUP]
yx8y0xx09
U\pTQL
0P=mTT
xTl0P
LPt(,Q
-y-TP
x9P1H
t\I8u10x1
-\UTT
9l$\Q\-
UT$00UT
L1TPU$
81TIx
T-xxPQ
,xTTUx\
l9PPx
]0u8x-
,LP,0t0
(PP\p
]8PTP-
t-x0]0t
u,L@l
P$01Q
-,TTx
Q0]au0
pU-0T
m0t10x
$,]-H8%0T
\1H,t
t0Ut09
Ty9-tTt
-,)-,L0lPT
MP-8LP
H09l8u
-TT1tp
l,-0Pu
t),I0
p\UTUu
xTP0a
tTz,\
,\TPUt0
)TP,\
0-(1TH
x\mtTU
QxxQ9xQP
8U0]\
T0H8,M
Qx]T1
xUQTU
l0]xTt(
1xy10P
]UP]-
Pt0Ty9
01P0x
\],P1
\9pP(
T(]$TP]
8U\]lH
Ux0]U
L\y9l
QU,TU
=u8^\U1\
UP\q,=t]
UQ0yP
0]H0]
x0ybQ
Tu1u$
^t-L,
x0xx,
1t(\-
y0,UYT8
UT\UTy$
0xPTPT
U\0yTu
\yUxm
UQp0x1
UTl\u
tL,$$0P
,U]L]
Ut8x0-9
T,bUt(
uT]$x
Q\TI\1
Mt,9q8u
9P1tL
u9Yy\
Ux1PL
x,U,9
ll$$H
U1]U0
PTt$,
T9TQx
MP0]Px
]H$0T1
TU0t`
x1tP,$
Y9t0l
$0$0x
$0tH`PH,P
\PU\P
xU]0]u\
x1xt9
TU(\Pu0yl
XUxTl
lt(1-
H,TH0P
-LP0I
PPTP]
9-0QL
PTLPL
P1PLT
uPH0,08H$
TP$T$
y19T,
PyTy\y
TxuyP
Ut]xT
t0\]T
P(Tx0
1T,-P
QT$P,H
t8P,I
9y,U0
]x0ty
UlTP0x
1x%0y
0T2l0
xPy,U
tLQ,L
,pTPTy
08Lt-
l0x1t
TH,pt$
l\yT9
\I0u,TP
U\\TU0
x,9(x1
T,H0P
t(y,T
x]x,$U
xt1PH0-Q
y$1<l
y0U,\
t1t0t
y00QH0
y]TQx-
]tUy]
L,H,)
,Tx]t9T
-)t8y
PTU-xxy
(UPTP
,0UPU
xmPTQ\M\
xPqt9
,,(P,
TP0HP
0Q8uxU
1t8t0
PU\u1
0Ut9T,-x
x1tPUL$
H,$PL
pPP-($0P=P
T1Tt9
0xUQTUT
PTUQ1%
-(0PP
Ul1I8
$TP0t
P$U0Q0Q$
-0uL$
t0y$,
-PP),L
$0Q\Tu8
L0Q(-,
yPT]T
TUP,(
$,,8U
T]\y\
--1t1QTT
(11Q1P
]I,xTu
5x0-,
-xUP)
uT-Py
Tt992
T1PUUy8QMx
P9u(T
T]xlx-
0U,0Pll
\UQ0x9
H1eUy
x0Ux1
TT-\9P
.(T-=
L0t,H
L--x,
U]$]<u
Px\1qPL
TPL,$,
--t,y
QP1,t
1t9Pp1-U
t1`Ix1p
H0-x,
8y]x\
x8-PT0
8y-0t
TyTaU
up0-0QT
]V,L,
t-aY]b
QT1P]
1T$,)
t\t9q
TT-P\1
)TU0x
TTxH9xH
Uy\PQLP
\-(TQLP
,UQT]
u0UP]
PMPT,
T1y-L
0TQ$0-
Ty$UU
\-U%P
U]t0\9
u-1\%PT
T1,Tau$P
,P(t1
Pt,U8TH$
,(PPT
bxt`y0U
0y0]-
t9UPx
-0PQT
y1$]0
!t"D#
&b'8(
SeeLink
SeeAlso
textSize
Caption
textSize
PrintText
RWTIPrintText
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPrintText
PrintImage
YWTIPrintImage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPrintImage
CopyImage
'WTICopyImage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTICopyImage
PreviousPage
WTIPreviousPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPreviousPage
qDWTIMain
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIMain
GoBack
WTIGoBack
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIGoBack
GWTIHelp
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIHelp
Gallery
WTIGallery
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIGallery
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Explorer
WTIExplorer
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIExplorer
]WTIQuit
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIQuit
NextPage
WTINextPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTINextPage
Arrows
ArrowBack
WTIPreviousPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPreviousPage
ArrowForward
WTINextPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTINextPage
A:A;@
0101T1T1T1
0U0101T1T1
T10U0101T1
T1T10U0101
T1T1T1010U
0U0U01T101
0U0U0U01T1
010U0U0U01
p602-2
The World's Languages (2 of 4)
Language families
Language trees were used by 19th-century philologists (historical linguists). They all derive, to some extent, from the work of scholars such as the Englishman Sir William Jones (1746-94), who in 1786 described the relationship that exists - especially in the area of vocabulary - between Latin and Greek, the Germanic languages, Hindi and Persian:
Dutch English German Greek
broeder brother Bruder phr
vader father Vater pat
moeder mother Mutter mat
Irish Latin Sanskrit
brathair frater bhratar-
athair pater pitar-
mathair mater mata
In the 19th century, two further developments occurred: phonological and syntactic evidence was used to reinforce relationships already clear from similarities of vocabulary between languages, and other language families were established. The German philologist and folklorist Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) - also famous for his and his brother Wilhelm Carl's collection of folk tales - formulated a law which, with certain modifications proposed by the Danish linguist Karl Verner (1846-96), gave a systematic account of the sound differences in the related Indo-European languages. An initial 'p' in proto-Indo- European - assumed to be the mother language of the Indo-European family - was retained as 'p' in Latin and Greek, changed to 'f' in the Germanic languages and often disappeared in Irish Gaelic:
Latin English Irish
piscis fish iasc
pater father athair
periculum fear eagla
Similar correspondences could be found for other consonants:
Latin English Irish
canis hound cu
centum hundred cead
cor heart croidhe
caballus horse capall
and for vowels, with 'a' in one language often corresponding to 'o' or 'e' in another:
Latin English French
frater brother fr
mater mother m
The second development in historical language study was the recognition of additional groupings of languages. Today, as well as the Indo-European family, other large families have been recognized. These include: Altaic - e.g. Mongolian and Turkish.
Amerindian - North American Indian languages such as Chinook and Nootka.
Austronesian - languages of the southwest Pacific such as Fijian and Kuanua.
Bantu - Sub-Saharan African languages such as Herero (a language of Namibia) and Zulu.
Dravidian - languages of central and southern India and Sri Lanka such as Tamil and Telugu.
Finno-Ugrian - e.g. Finnish, Lappish and Magyar (spoken in Hungary).
Indo-Chinese - e.g. Chinese and Tibetan.
Japanese - apparently unrelated to other languages.
Papuan - languages of Papua New Guinea such as Chimbu and Huli.
Semitic-Hamitic - languages spoken in North Africa and southwest Asia such as Arabic and Hebrew.
Whether these families are related to one another is a question that cannot be answered because the necessary evidence is not available.
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
The World's Languages (page 2)
ftsTitle
lHllH l
Hrlrlrll
rlrrl
OUOUO
OUOOU$
^|^X^^X^X
^^|^X^|^X^
^X^X^
HllrHlrr
lHlrlrO
NrrNlNrrNr
NrHrl+
lHHlH
HHlrH
llrrlHlHrH
NONON
lHlHlHlH
llHrllrr
^XX^X|XX|
NlNlNl$
XX|XX^XX^
X|X|^|_V"
|X^X|X|X|X
^X|X^X
XX|^XY#
|X|XX^XYX
YXX^X|
^XX|Y
X^|X^
X^|X|X
lHlHlHr
^XX|^
rHHlHHl
HHrHH
|XX|^X|^|X
H*$$*H$$*$
|^X|^X|X|X
zzW2V2VW]
^X^X|^
X|X^|
NryslH
^X^|X|XX^Y
YXYXYYW
^|X^|^Y
^XX|XXW
X|X|^XX|
rsysyy
X^|X^
^X^XX|^X^
|X^|X^}V
|X^|X^|XY
|^|^X
X|^|^|X|X
^|^|^|X|Y
YX|YX|^|
YX^XY
^_e_e^
rxrsx
rsryrryrry
|XX|^|
XX^|^|^|^X
^|^|Y
d_^^_e
uJuuououou
_^e_e_e_e
e_e_e
XYX}X^
XX^|X^|X
uJouoou
de^ed
e^ee^
__e_e
lHlNlHrr
WXX}^Y|
uouoouuouo
XYX^|X
YXYXY
rNlHrHlHl
|uOOs
PuouU
s$*$*$
_^_^_e
_^_^e_
_^_^_
Y__Y__Y
PuPuPP
uPuuPuPuJ
X^|X^
e_e_e]
_e_e__^^
e_e__
WWXXW
]\]\\
\]\\V
\V\V\V
=b=bb=bb
=bb=bb=bb=
bb=b=bb=bb
=bb=bb=bb=
bb=bb=b=\h
+rr?+
++srr
++srs
srsrsBr
+rr@+
+rr@+
i88i88i88i
88i88i88i8
8i88i88i88
i88i88i88i
88i88i88i8
8i88i88i88
i88i88i88i
+rrsrrs
++Q8
p602-3
The World's Languages (3 of 4)
Language types
Other approaches to the relationship between languages have also been pursued. The German philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), followed by August Schleicher (1821-1868), helped to establish a branch of language study that has sometimes been called typological linguistics and has proved useful in classifying languages according to their structural type. According to this approach the three main groups of languages are agglutinative, fusional (or inflectional) and isolating. Von Humboldt's approach dealt mainly with morphology, that is, the structure and forms of words.
Agglutinative languages, like Turkish, typically form structures by means of a string of morphemes, each with a specific meaning or function. Thus in Turkish 'to love' is sevmek ('love' + infinitive), 'to be loved' sevilmek ('love' + passive + infinitive) and 'not to love' sevmemek ('love' + negative + infinitive).
Fusional or inflectional languages, like Latin, have words where there is not a one-to-one correspondence between a morpheme and a meaning. The Latin word equus, for example, fuses the features nominative case + masculine + singular as well as the meaning ('horse'). Cases change in fusional languages; for example, the nominative case equus would be used where the word is the subject of a sentence, and the accusative case equum where the word is the object of a sentence.
In isolating languages, each word consists of just one morpheme - and words don't change their form at all - so the distinction between word and morpheme is not very useful. There are very few pure isolating languages in the world, but Vietnamese is the best example. Some pidginized languages (languages based on one language but containing elements of another) are, to a large extent, isolating. In Kamtok, the pidginized English of the Cameroon, one morpheme can function without change as a noun (singular or plural), as a verb, as an adjective and as an adverb. Thus bad can be the equivalent of 'sin/sins' in i bin du bad ('he did bad things'), 'be bad' in i bad ('he is bad'), 'bad' in the sense of 'naughty' in di bad pikin ('the naughty child') and of 'very' in di pikin fain bad ('the child is very good-looking').
In contrast to isolating languages, there are polysynthetic languages, ones in which few, if any, words contain just one morpheme. Polysynthetic languages, including many American Indian languages, are characterized by long, complex words that express the meanings of whole phrases and even clauses.
These ways of grouping languages all reveal useful information about the characteristics of languages, but no language belongs solely to one type. English, for example, has characteristics of all four types. A word such as 'unworkmanlike' is agglutinative in that one can distinguish four morphemes each with a recognizable meaning. 'Took' is fusional in that it incorporates the meaning of past tense + the meaning of 'take'. The fact that 'fish' can be a singular or a plural noun as well as a verb shows that parts of English resemble isolating languages. A word such as 'disestablishmentarianism' has the complex structure of a word from a polysynthetic language.
Contemporary linguists consider other factors in identifying language groups, including phonological patterns, such as the use of tone to distinguish meaning. Chinese, for example, is a tone language. An important way of classifying language types is by word order. Typically, English has the basic order subject-verb-object ('I - ate - the apple'); it is an SVO language, as are Greek and Swahili. But Hindi, Japanese and Turkish, for example, are basically SOV ('I - the apple - ate', as it were). And Hebrew, Maori and Welsh are examples of VSO languages ('Ate - I - the apple'). Languages in each group (and these are not the only ones possible) generally have other syntactic features in common.
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
ftsTitleOverride
The World's Languages (page 3)
ftsTitle
::Y::
::Y:^1-:
Y:Y::
:Y:Y:
:Y::Y
::(-:
::^::
yx1xp0p
yp0y0x1xpx
x)xpx)x
:^::Y
x8yxxy
::Y::
(xyxU0xy
xxyx0y
yxUxxyT
::Y::
xyT0yT0yxx
x0xx1x
xxy0xyx
xyxTyxyxx0
xyxyxxy
yx0yx0yx0x
0yxxyx0xy0
-(x1x0y
yxxUxyx0y0
xyTxyx
xT1xy0x1xx
0yxxU0xyx0
py1yy
::^:^:
-(x0x0yxTx
yxxyxyxy
y0xyx
:Y::Y
1xy0x0xT0y
0y0xyx0
yT0xy0y
Tyxyxy
yx0xy
::Y:9
y0xy0xx1xx
UxxyxyT
-(x1xxU0yx
xyxTy
1xy0x1xx
(yxx1xx
T0yx0yx0y
-(xxyxxy
xyxxyxxyT0
y0yx0yx0
UyUyU
0p00(0(00(
(yx0xy
0x0yx0xy0x
yTxxyTxyx
-(xyxyxxyx
TxyxTxy
y0yx0y
::Y::
(yxxT
1xx1xy0xyx
(xx1xx1
yxx1xxT0yx
x1xx0xxy(
-(yxxy
1x1x0yxx1x
yT0yx0y
(x1x0y0
yTxxy
yxxyx
x0xyxxTx1
(qxUxx
yTx1x0yx1x
0yxyxx1xx
yxyx0y
yxx0x1xTxy
xT0xyx0x0
(yx1x0
x1x0yxx0yT
0yxUxxy0x
xyxyxx
yxyxyTx1xy
xxy0xx1xxy
21121z
T1xxyxyxx1
yxTxy
0y0y0x1xyx
0y0xx0yxyx
xU0yxxy
yx1xxTxxyT
UxyxT0x
-(x0x
yxyxyxxyxy
x0x1xx0xyx
xyT0yxyxx
(yTyx0x1
x0y0x0yxyx
xyxy0xx
x1xxyx0x(
xx0xy
TxxyTxxyTx
0xy0xxyxy
pxy0xxyxy
(xyxyx
xyxxyxyxxy
xy0xT1xx0
px1xppxy
(y0y0x1x0y
0x0x1x0xyx
yxTyx
1:22:
yTxyxTyxy
y0x0xy0x
Ty0yxy
U0yxxyxyxx
(x00q
0x1x1x0x1x
xT0yx0x1xx
((1(00(
(00(0(
(0((1(00(0
0(0(0(00(0
(00(00(1(0
0((00((00(
0((0(01(
:(x8x1x
Ty0yxy
yTyxxyxyxx
yxT1x
(yxxT0xxy0
1x0xx1xxyx
y01x0y
(xx1xyT1
xxy0yxxyxU
xx1x0yx
0Tyxyx1
yTxxyx0
(yx0y0x0
y0x1x1x0y0
xy0y0xy
$TxyxxU
yTxxUxxyxx
TxyxT
xxyxxyxxyx
xpxppxLpxy
pxppx
19U91]
p10xy001
(()((0qp
9919]
ypxxyxxpx
xxTxyx0
xyxyxxyxy0
px1x0
x1x0y
xxyTxyxT0y
0yxyxxyxyx
yx1xyx
1(xyx
x0x1x0x0xx
yx0y0y0
yx0yxy
TyxyTyx
Ux1xy
0xLypx
Tpxx1
1xx1xy
xxqxyxyx
qxyppZ
x0y0y0q0y(
1xxqTxyx
0q0yx
91]199
yxyxx0yx
yxypy
xyxy1xyxyx
xxyxy
0yxyxyx
0x)0(0)0
x0100
x1x(x)x
(pxpyxxp
xpx)zrz
rzrzrz
pxyxpxpxp
2::^:
V:2:^
:;;2;:;:3;
::3 ;::;;:
;2;;:2;;:Z
1z1zq1y)qz
Vz1zz
1x0x0
r1zr1
z)-)rz
r1z1z
-1)1)
r))r))r)
)r))r))r))
r))r)Mr))r
))r))r))r)
r))r))r)
0(1T0
-11-11-
-1-11-
1-11-11-
-11-11-11-
-1-11-11-1
1-11-11-11
-11-11-1
-11-11-11-
1-11-
-1-11-1-
-11-1
00U0(
-1-1-
00x(x01x(x
x00yxy0
y00x0TTx1x
(00(00(10(
10)0((0(01
(00(1
U11-1-
U11--
((0(0(0(0
1x0xx
-1-1-1-1-1
:2:2:2:2:2
:2:2:22:2:
2:22:22:2:
2:2:2:2:2:
22:22:2:2:
2:2:2
:2:2:2
YYUYYUY
qmzqIzqmz
rmzqm
:;;:;::;;
:;::;;:;::
;;:;::;;:;
2::;:;:;:;
:;:;:;:;:;
:;::;:;:;:
;:;:;:;::;
zzyyU
Ur)zc
nrn)r%
rrn)nrn)nr
nrnr%rnr%r
nr%rnrnrnr
nrn)nrn)nr
n)nrnrnrnr
nr%rnr%
nrnr%rnr%r
nr%rnrnrnr
n)nrnrnr%r
nr%rnrnrnr
n)nrn)nrn)
nrnrnrnrnr
%rnr)nrn)n
rr)r)
Nr)r)
)*qrrNr)
Nr)r)
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrn%
p602-4
The World's Languages (4 of 4)
General features of languages
From the evidence currently available to linguists the following generalizations can be made about world languages.
1.All languages change through time because of internal pressures. These include the desire to regularize ('dived' rather than 'dove' is now used in British English as the past tense of the verb 'dive'); and changes of meaning (the word 'silly' in English used to mean 'holy'). External pressures often result in vocabulary borrowed from other languages - in this respect English has been one of the greatest borrowers. English has also changed from a highly inflected to a relatively uninflected language.
2.Language change may be slow or very rapid. Icelandic has changed less in the last 1000 years than English did in 20 as it was pidginized on the sugar plantations of Queensland in the 19th century.
3.All languages are equal to the needs of their users. There are no inferior languages.
4.All language users use different styles of their language in different contexts, e.g. formal and ritual occasions, storytelling and literature (either written or oral), within families, within peer groups.
5.Any human language can be translated into any other, although there may be losses in nuance and cultural reference in the process.
6.Any normal child will learn the language or languages of his or her environment irrespective of the family the language may belong to. In other words, an English child exposed to Hindi or Swahili will learn it as easily and as naturally as he or she learns English.
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
ftsTitleOverride
The World's Languages (page 4)
ftsTitle
::Y::
::Y:^1-:
Y:Y::
:Y:Y:
Y::Y:
:Y::Y
::(-:
::^::
:^::Y
(()00
::Y::
::Y::
py1yy
::^:^:
:Y::Y
::Y:9
UyUyU
px((p
xppqpp
((xx(
pxqxy(
8x8y8x0
8x8y8x9
09x8y8
8y8y8y0
0(x(0(x8(0
00(0(
(0(T(x
x0((0
\8y8x8
)p(p(p)
0x1x0x
0y0y8
x8y01
19U91]
(p)p(x(p(p
9919]
Y1-11-
11-1-11-
-11Y11
91]199
qx(()
10010
xpx1pxMx
p0pxxyxxp
2::^:
V:2:^
1yr(ry)yry
(q()p
)(p((
)()p((
r-zr1
z)-)r
r-z1z1z)
z)r1z)z
r))r))
r))r))r))r
))r))r)Mr)
)r))r))r))
r)r))r))r)
(L((qp
ypp(y
(p(pp
(qp(p
p)x(x
y()p(
pqp(x
)(L)(
)(()(L(()L
)L(()
p(p(q(
1-1--1
xqxx0x
((xyp
)(()(y
)(()((L
)()L()(L)
1-1-1-
-11-1-
11-1--1-
1-1-1-1-1-
1-1-1-
U1-1-1-1-
1-1-1-1--1
y1-11-
(1((yx)((y
yxyx(
xxyTy0
yUxy(
yxTxxy
xxyxy
xyxy(yxU(
xyxT)(yxyT
yx)xyx)xyx
Ty(xy0yx1x
yT)xyxUx)x
Txxyxxy
zyzY)
U1zzyYU
Izqmz
$ryIzqm
zzyyU
Ur)zc
nrn)r%
nrnr%rnr%r
nr%rnrnrnr
n)nrnrnr%r
nr%rnrnrnr
n)nrn)nrn)
nrnrnrnrnr
%rnr)nrn)n
Nr)r)
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
nrnrnrnrnr
p604-1
CHINESE AND
JAPANESE WRITING
Chinese script - reckoned to be more than 4000 years old - is the oldest script still in use today; it consists of logograms (signs for words) and syllabic signs. Types of Chinese script sign include picture signs (as in 1 below), symbolic pictures (as in 2), and symbolic compounds (as in 3).
Sign Meaning Explanation
1. tree branches
above and
roots beneath
2. to speak, mouth with
word breath coming
out
3. very hot two fires
The Chinese writing system appeared in Japan in the 5th century AD, Chinese word-signs being taken over by the Japanese and read with Japanese rather than Chinese values. Some Chinese word-signs were given phonetic values and used as syllabic signs to express the grammatical determinatives of the Japanese language. Despite the development of a stable system of syllabic signs, the Japanese continue to make extensive use of Chinese logograms in their writing and printing today.
Writing Systems (1 of 4)
Human beings are believed to have kept records since the last Ice Age, about 20 000 years ago. Bones and antlers have been found with regular groups of incisions thought by some archaeologists to be calendars. Such objects may have been used to keep track of the migrating animals on which hunters of the Palaeolithic period depended. However, true writing was not invented until much later.
The distinguishing feature of a proper writing system is that the written symbols transmit the actual words and sounds of a particular language, and not simply ideas. Thus a picture of a horse does not constitute writing since it could be 'read' in any language, for example as cheval, hippos, equus, sisu or horse. In contrast, all of the words listed express the same idea - horse - but the writing reproduces the sounds of several different languages: French, Greek, Latin, Akkadian (ancient Babylonian) and English.
Writing systems are not the same as languages. One writing system, such as the modern Roman alphabet in which English is written, can be used to write a number of European languages. Similarly, the Arabic alphabet has been used to write Turkish and Persian as well as the Arabic language.
The earliest writing
Writing developed independently in several areas, including the Near East, China, the Indus Valley (in what is now Pakistan) and Central America. The writing systems that evolved in each of these areas are different and not influenced by the others. The earliest known true writing system was the cuneiform (wedge-shaped) script of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), which dates back to at least 3100 BC.
Why did people invent writing? The answer can perhaps be guessed at from the first things they wrote. In most places where writing was independently in-vented, the oldest surviving written documents are labels (often on storage jars) and lists, or the names of rulers. Generally, the societies that produced these documents were ones in which some people were much richer than others, power being concentrated in the hands of small groups. It is usually assumed that writing was invented because the members of such groups needed to monitor the movements of commodities and people in order to maintain their control over them. However, where writing is scarce, writ-ten words are also powerful symbols of authority. The monumental writing of a ruler's name - for example on gigantic stone slabs in Central America, or on oracle bones in China during the Shang period (1480-1050 BC) - served to indicate the ruler's special status, and thus enhanced his power and control.
In many (though not all) societies, writing soon came to be used for other purposes as well. For example, in early Mesopotamia, contracts and other business documents, letters, laws, religious rituals and even literature were written down. By contrast, in Central America writing was for a long time restricted to inscriptions on royal monuments. In societies where writing was intended for the use of a small ruling group, very few people actually knew how to read and write. Often special scribes were the only ones with the ability to read and write, and not even kings themselves were literate. This is not altogether surprising since many scripts were very difficult to learn. In Mesopotamia, for example, temples ran special schools that trained boys (but only rarely girls) to be scribes.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
"!2!W
H!l!wz
ftsTitleOverride
Writing Systems (page 1)
ftsTitle
p604-2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN ALPHABET
The modern Roman alphabet, as well as the other major alphabets in use today - Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew and Arabic - developed from a script (North Semitic) that evolved on the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean during the second millennium BC. The table below traces the development of six modern Roman characters from their earliest hieroglyphic form.
It is generally believed that North Semitic script took over elements from ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic script in order to reproduce the consonant sounds of the North Semitic language. According to one theory, the name of the object indicated by the hieroglyphs was translated into the North Semitic language, and the Semitic word then provided the new alphabetic value of the sign. Thus the hieroglyph for house was translated into Semitic as bet and used as the letter for b.
Writing Systems (2 of 4)
Logographic scripts
According to the way they work, writing systems can be classified as logographic, syllabic or alphabetic. Sometimes, particular writing systems use more than one of these principles simultaneously. Ancient Egyptian, for in stance, used all three at once.
In logographic writing systems each symbol stands for a whole word. In many such systems grammatical determinatives (special symbols indicating changes in meaning or grammar such as compound or plural forms of words) are added to the basic signs. Below are the additions that would be made to the basic sign for 'man' in Sumerian - the oldest known script - used in southern Mesopotamia from about 3100 BC.
LU = man
LU.MESH = men (with
special sign
for the
plural form)
LUGAL = king (liter-
ally, 'great
man')
While logographic writing systems were principally used by ancient civilizations, some logographic systems are still used by modern languages, most notably Chinese.
The most obvious difficulty with logographic writing systems is that an enormous number of symbols is necessary to express every word in a language. The Chinese script consists of about 50 000 characters, though not all are in regular use. It is hardly surprising that in imperial China few people were literate. Even in the modern period, it took several decades to develop a Chinese typewriter.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Writing Systems (page 2)
ftsTitle
]d]]]d
p604-3
Writing Systems (3 of 4)
Syllabic scripts
Syllabic writing systems use symbols to express syllables. Many early writing systems were syllabic: Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform in the ancient Near East, two scripts of pre-Classical Greece (known as Linear A and B), Japanese, and the ancient Mayan script of Central America.
Babylonian cuneiform is a good example of the use and diffusion of a syllabic script. It was originally derived from logographic Sumerian writing. Both scripts were written by pressing wedge-shaped marks onto wet clay tablets. Words were composed by stringing syllabic signs together. Shown below is the composition of the words for 'father' and 'brother' in Akkadian, the language of ancient Babylonia.
a-bu (abu) = father
a-hu (ahu) = brother
The syllabic cuneiform script had a long life in the ancient Near East, being in use between c. 3100 BC and c. 100 BC. As well as Akkadian, it was also used to write other, unrelated languages such as Hittite (spoken in central Turkey) and Elamite (spoken in southeastern Iran). Similarly, while Japanese is largely a syllabic writing system, the symbols it uses are derived from Chinese logographic characters.
Although syllabic writing systems are less cumbersome than logographic ones, they remain difficult and were generally used only by professional scribes. Babylonian cuneiform has about 600 symbols, but many of these are used for several different syllabic values. For example, the symbol that usually represented the syllable 'pa' could sometimes also stand for the syllables 'ba', 'had', 'hat', 'sak', 'shag' or 'hats', depending on the context.
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
ftsTitleOverride
Writing Systems (page 3)
ftsTitle
R%F!M%$
p604-4
Picture
Outline
Writing Systems (4 of 4)
Alphabetic scripts
Most modern languages use alphabetic writing systems, in which each symbol stands for a basic sound. English and most modern European languages are written in Roman-derived alphabets. The great advantage of alphabetic systems is that many fewer symbols need to be learned than in logographic or syllabic writing systems, since most alphabets have fewer than 30 characters. Ironically, the invention of the first alphabet may have been inspired by ancient Egyptian script, one of the most complicated writing systems ever devised. Egyptian hieroglyphics used logographic, syllabic and alphabetic symbols in combination. By the middle of the second millennium BC communities dwelling in the Sinai peninsula realized that all the sounds of their West Semitic tongue (related to Hebrew) could be expressed by a small number of alphabetic symbols. (They were perhaps derived from the alphabetic signs in Egyptian hieroglyphics.) To this day, rough rock-cut inscriptions in the Sinai Desert bear witness to their innovation, which was to lead to the creation of the familiar alphabetic writing systems of the present.
By 1150 BC alphabetic writing systems derived from the original Sinai script must have been widespread in the Levant (modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria). However, because alphabetic writing was largely done on perishable materials, such as parchment (dried and processed sheepskins) or papyrus (an early form of paper used in and imported from Egypt), very little original material survives. Although papyrus has been preserved in Egypt because of the dry, bacteria-free conditions in the desert, it has rotted away in the wetter conditions of the Levant.
Early examples of alphabetic writing dating from between 1450 and 1150 BC have been found on the site of the ancient Canaanite city of Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra in Syria). In order to write in Ugaritic (a West Semitic language related to Hebrew) a writing system was developed here consisting of 30 cuneiform symbols. Documents in Ugaritic script were written on clay tablets, which last almost forever once baked. The development of this script suggests that the in-habitants of Ugarit, a cosmopolitan port town, were also more familiar with the more common tradition of Semitic alphabetic writing on perishable materials.
A much later and very rare example of the survival of original Semitic parchments is the Dead Sea Scrolls. This collection of enigmatic religious texts in Aramaic and Hebrew dating from between 100 BC and 68 AD was found in jars in a desert cave in Israel between 1947 and 1956. After 1200 BC the development of alphabets of the Levant used for Semitic languages such as Phoenician, Hebrew and Aramaic becomes slightly easier to trace since there are a few inscriptions carved in stone.
The Semitic use of alphabetic scripts (including Hebrew, Arabic, Phoenician and Aramaic) differs from the modern European use of alphabetic writing in two notable ways. Firstly, the normal direction of writing in Semitic scripts was right to left (as is still the case in Hebrew and Arabic), rather than left to right. Secondly, the vowel sounds and diphthongs of the languages that use Semitic scripts (a, e, i, o, u, ou, ai, oo, etc.) are not written, and only the consonants (b, k, d, f, g, etc.) are recorded.
The writing of vowel sounds seems to have been an accident, rather than a brilliant invention. Greeks became acquainted with alphabets of the Levant when they came into regular contact with the Phoenicians and other Levantine peoples, probably some time between 950 and 800 BC, when both Greeks and Phoenicians established trading posts all over the Mediterranean. Some letters that represent consonants in Semitic were heard in Greek as vowels. For example, the Semitic glottal stop consonant (which is similar to the gulp heard in the colloquial English pronunciation of the word 'bottle' as 'bo'ul'), was heard by Greeksas the vowel sound 'a'. The Greeks also seem to have been responsible for changing the direction of writing. The earliest Greek inscriptions run both right to left and left to right (sometimes both in the same text), but after about 150 years, left to right became standard.
The Greeks also brought their alphabet to Italy, where it was adapted to writing Etruscan, Latin and other languages. The Roman Empire helped spread the alphabet over much of Western Europe, though the Greek alphabet continued to be used in the eastern Empire. By the time the Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD it was a Christian Empire. Writing (in Latin) had by this time become essential to the administration of the Church. Both the Roman writing system and Christianity outlasted the Empire within which they had developed. During the early medieval period the Latin alphabet was adapted for writing local spoken languages such as Gothic, Old Irish, Frankish and Anglo-Saxon. Meanwhile, in the east, Greek Orthodox Christianity spread north to the Balkans and Russia and with it went the Greek alphabet. It is reputed that two Orthodox clerics, St Cyril and St Methodius, adapted the Greek alphabet to write Slavonic languages. Hence the alphabet used today in Russia, Bulgaria and some other parts of Eastern Europe is called Cyrillic, after St Cyril. Thus the Semitic, Greek, and Roman alphabets were the basis of most of the alphabets now used in modern Europe, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent.
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
X P!("
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
,%P%wz
ftsTitleOverride
Writing Systems (page 4)
ftsTitle
p606-1
,The Story of English (1 of 1)
The English language is a rich mixture, both in its origins and in the variety of ways in which it is spoken in the world today. The origins of English lie in the Germanic group of languages - from which other modern languages such as German and Dutch are also descended - but its vocabulary includes a very large proportion of Romance words, which are derived from Latin and are related to modern languages such as French and Italian.
Britain's colonial past has ensured the extraordinary expansion in the use of English from being spoken only in a small island to becoming the most widely-used language in the world. As such, it is used worldwide for air-traffic control, and it is the most common language used in technical publications. It is also taught as the principal foreign language in many countries.
Old English
Before the 5th century AD, various Celtic languages were spoken in Britain. But the real ancestors of English began to develop in the 5th century, when the Celtic languages were displaced by successive invasions from the eastern coasts of the North Sea. These invaders spoke Germanic languages (Frisian, Saxon, Jutish). It is from these languages that Old English (the language of the Anglo-Saxons) developed. Although Old English is as different from Modern English as a foreign language, it provided the basis of modern English both in the way sentences are formed and in most of the short, non-abstract words that are used in ordinary speech. The Celtic languages did survive in the west and north, however, developing into Welsh and Gaelic. In England, Celtic languages only survive in a few place names (especially rivers), such as Avon.
The most obvious difference between Old English (OE) and any later form of the language is that the function of words in a sentence was indicated not by the order in which they appeared, but by inflections - endings that change the form of words. Thus 'a dog bites the man' could take any of the forms: hund thone guman biteth, thone guman biteth hund, hund biteth thone guman. 'A man bites the dog', on the other hand, might be thone hund guma biteth. Furthermore, as in many modern languages, all nouns had grammatical gender - masculine, feminine or neuter - and adjectives changed their form to agree with the gender of nouns. OE 'wif-mann' ('woman'), for example, was in fact a masculine noun. OE (like Modern German) was thus a richly inflected language and the history of English is in part the history of the gradual loss of this inflectional system. Some of it remains, however, most notably in our present-day pronouns (e.g. he, him, his).
The 7th-century Christian missions to Britain brought learning and literacy. At first this was entirely Latin (the words 'bishop', 'monk' and 'church' derive from Latin borrowings into OE), but an OE written literature did emerge, at first in the northeast and later, and most notably, in the West Saxon kingdom of Alfred the Great, who reigned AD 871-899. From the late 8th to the 10th century, the vocabulary was influenced by further invaders from Scandinavia - the Vikings - whose Norse tongue gave us several words, including 'happy', 'husband', 'wrong' and the pronoun 'they'. Norse also left its mark in place-names, for example beck ('stream') in 'Troutbeck' and fell ('hill') in 'Scafell'.
Middle English
The Norman Conquest in 1066 not only changed the government of England - it also changed the way in which the English language developed.
English now became the language of a conquered people and ceased to be the 'national language'; a Romance language - Norman French - was the language of the court, and a Normanized Latin the language of government, learning and the Church. The social division between French and English speakers can be seen in the contrast between the words pig, sheep, cow (English words for beasts of the fields), and pork, mutton, beef (French words for meat on the table).
Nevertheless, literature was still written in English, with dialect forms in different parts of the country. For three hundred years after the Conquest, English and French slowly merged as the separation between Norman and Saxon became less rigid. By the end of the 14th century, English was being used for official purposes; pleadings in law courts were first made in English in 1362. By 1400 a language had developed that, despite its many dialect variations, was recognizably the beginnings of the English we know today. The greatest writer in Middle English was the poet Geoffrey Chaucer (?1345-1400), whose Canterbury Tales show the range and power of expression of the emergent language.
This language was different in two ways from Old English. Its vocabulary no longer came from a single source but showed an inextricable mixture of Germanic and Romance words. Often the more basic word today is Germanic and the derived word Romance; we take our teeth (Germanic) to a dentist (Romance) and things connected with the moon (Germanic) are lunar (Romance). The other important difference relates to the simplification of the inflectional system. Grammatical gender was entirely lost in Middle English (and so adjectives ceased to 'agree' with nouns) and the inflectional endings of OE were already disappearing, with word order being used to signal meaning as in present-day English.
The Renaissance
By 1500 English was not very far removed from the language we use today. With the revival of classical learning known as the Renaissance, it was a common view, which endured well into the 17th century, that Latin was the only suitable language for serious writing. English, however, was itself influenced, both in its vocabulary and in the sentence structure of scholarly style, by the classical models of Latin and Greek. This, combined with the establishment of a strong central government, led to English being accepted once again as the national language for all public purposes. Besides, as the poetry and plays of the Tudor period (notably the works of Shakespeare) had clearly shown, the language was well established as capable of literary as well as popular use.
Shakespeare's works show the language in transition. The form 'thou' and the inflection '-est' as in 'thou knowest' ('you know') were still used in speaking to one person regarded as an intimate or an inferior, though the usage was not consistent. As regards the formation of questions: in Macbeth, Lennox asks 'Goes the king today?' where we would use the verb 'do' as in 'Does the king go today?', though both forms were available, as shown by Polonius's question in Hamlet 'What do you read, my lord?' Notice also that we would say 'What are you reading?' The present-day distinction between 'I read' (simple present tense) and 'I am reading' was only just emerging at this stage.
The introduction of printing into England by William Caxton in the 15th century brought more books in English, and printers began to regularize spelling and punctuation. Although regional dialects continued to be spoken, the idea of a standard form of written English was now accepted. The establishment of this standard and the status of English, as against Latin, was strengthened by the writings of the Reformation, notably the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552) and the Authorized or King James translation of the Bible (1611).
Modern English
From the late 17th century, English usage became more regular and consistent. The idea of an Academy similar to the one in France was unpopular, but individual scholars and writers tried to preserve what they regarded as the 'purity' of their native language. Standards of spelling and meaning were supported by dictionaries, the most famous being that of Samuel Johnson in 1755. Grammarians made recommendations for correct English usage, based on Latin and regarded as a prescriptive set of rules for all to follow.
The grammar of English did not greatly change after the middle of the 17th century. The third-person singular of the present tense of the verb ended in -s instead of -eth, and the singular pronoun thou disappeared with the universal use of you. The main development over the last three centuries has been the growth of vocabulary. Some words have become obsolete or changed their meanings (for example 'nice' had a range of meanings it no longer has, and 'quick' meant alive), but many more have been introduced.
In the late 19th century new discoveries, inventions and ideas brought further expansion of vocabulary. This coincided with another great literary period marked by the acceptance of the novel as a serious literary medium, as well as poetry, memoirs, biographies and political writing. Academic study of language principles brought better understanding of the history and nature of English. A notable contribution was the Oxford English Dictionary, begun by James Murray (1837-1915) in 1879.
The 20th century has witnessed continuing growth. Technical advances have brought still more new words as well as adapting old ones. A word like computer is introduced and the word screen takes on a special meaning in connection with it. There have been few changes in grammar, but a tendency to drop some forms; the inflected form whom is seldom heard in speech today. A more significant change is the use of they and them in connection with singular common-gender words like person and student instead of the masculine form.
English in the world
The language of Shakespeare was the language of some 5 million people, the population of Britain in the late 16th century. Since that time English has spread throughout the world, beginning with the colonies in North America. The speech of the early settlers developed into American English, with some differences in vocabulary, grammar and spelling. As the British Empire expanded during the 18th and 19th centuries, English became the language of countries such as Canada and Australia, occupied mainly by people of British origin. It was also the official language in India, many parts of Africa and elsewhere. When these countries gained independence, they usually kept English for use in international communication and between speakers with different first languages. These speakers, like those in the USA, have adapted English for their own purposes, thereby creating new varieties of the language that are legitimate in their own right.
The variety of English known as 'British English' is in fact now spoken by a minority among the English-speaking peoples of the world. It has been estimated that there are over 300 million people for whom English is their native language, perhaps 1000 million for whom it is a second national language, and an unknown number who have learned it as a foreign language. The teaching of English as a second or foreign language, both in Britain and abroad, has greatly expanded and is now academically and commercially important. The emergence of the predominantly English-speaking USA as a superpower undoubtedly played a role in the international importance of English.
British English was itself affected by world use. It has readily absorbed new words ever since the Norman Conquest and today has words from many languages: examples include bungalow from Hindi, pyjamas from Urdu, gong from Malay and boomerang from Australian aboriginal. The English that emerged about the end of the 14th century as a mixed and developing language has now a very extensive vocabulary.
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* RENAISSANCE THEATER
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* MODERN POETRY IN ENGLISH
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
(A8AW
NAxAwz
ftsTitleOverride
The Story of English (page 1)
ftsTitle
;__5;
p608-1
ftsTitleOverride
How Language Works (page 1)
ftsTitle
Ferdinand de Saussure, the Swiss linguist, in 1909. Saussure's idea of language as a system of signs, whose component parts can only be defined in relation to one another, not only provided the inspiration for modern 'structural' linguistics, but also exerted a significant influence on the social sciences and on literary criticism.
How Language Works (1 of 4)
Language is the most important and widespread of sign systems; all human technology, civilization and culture depend upon it. Its use demands the coordination of immensely complex physical and mental activities. Since these activities are normally subconscious, language is usually taken for granted and treated as a transparent medium through which we entertain ideas and acquire information about the world.
Language usually manifests itself in the form of writing or speech, though not necessarily so. The sign languages used by the deaf are as complex as spoken languages. Speech develops be-fore writing, both in societies and in individuals.
There are an estimated five thousand living languages. Making this calculation is hindered by the difficulty in distinguishing languages from dialects; distinctions are often drawn for political reasons rather than linguistic ones.
Linguistics: the study of language
The academic study of language is known as linguistics. Its aim is to understand how language in general works. Following the ideas of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), often thought of as the father of the subject, it focuses on the linguistic system ('la langue') underlying people's linguistic behavior ('la parole'). It aims to describe the system underlying the way people actually speak their own language - rather than telling them how they ought to speak it, or teaching them foreign languages. In other words, linguistics is descriptive, rather than prescriptive. Saussure was the first to suggest that synchronic linguistics, which is the study of languages as they are at a given point in time, could be independent of diachronic (historical) linguistics, which is the study of how languages have developed through the centuries.
At the center of linguistics lies the study of grammar, which can be divided into phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.
Sounds in language
Speech is a continuous stream of sound that the speaker's mind divides into units. The physical study of such sounds, and how they are produced in the vocal tract, is called phonetics. Linguists use a special phonetic script to represent speech sounds because there is seldom a one-to-one correspondence between speech sounds and the symbols of ordinary spelling (graphemes). Think, for example, how 'ough'is pronounced in 'bought', 'bough', 'enough', 'through' and 'hiccough'. By contrast with phonetics, which deals with the physical aspects of sound, phonology is concerned with the linguistic significance of sounds in a given language. Not all phonetic (physical) differences in sound are linguistically significant in a given language. In English the physical difference between [l] and [r] is significant and functional: it serves to distinguish words from one another (e.g. 'lip' and 'rip', 'light' and 'right'). 'l' and 'r' are thus different phonemes in English, and the difference between them is described as a phonemic difference. But in the Ewe language (spoken in Ghana), the distinction is not phonemic. In Ewe, no two words are distinguished from each other simply by that difference in sound: indeed speakers of Ewe find it difficult to hear the difference. Similarly, English speakers tend not to notice any difference in the 'p' sounds in 'pot' and 'spot' or the 't' sound in 'team' and 'steam'. There is a difference, represented phonetically as [ph] and [th] versus [p] and [t], but it is not phonemic in English, though it is phonemic in Thai, where the word pronounced [pha] means 'aunt' and the word pronounced [pa] means 'cliff'.
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Y1Q1M
--1UU
)U11-
)1-,-1
--1-1UUQY-
-,11,
11P1U
p608-2
ftsTitleOverride
How Language Works (page 2)
ftsTitle
Noam Chomsky, the influential American linguist and political activist. In his writings he argued that the ease with which children master the grammar of their native language suggests an innate predisposition to acquire language. Chomsky, who sees his ideas about language as related to those of the rationalist philosophers of the 18th century, has sought to make linguistics an integral part of modern psychology and philosophy.
How Language Works (2 of 4)
Words and sentences
Some sequences of phonemes or graphemes represent morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in the structure of words. (The study of word structure is called morphology.) For example, the sequence of graphemes d + o + g represents the English morpheme 'dog', while the sequence o + l + s represents no English morpheme. Morphemes may stand as words in their own right or combine with other morphemes to form complex words. For example, the word 'dogs' consists of two morphemes: 'dog' (a kind of animal) + '-s' (plural); and 'uninvited' divides into 'un-' and 'invited' which in turn divides into 'invite' and '-ed'. In some languages there is a tendency for morphemes to correspond to words; in others, words tend to contain more than one morpheme.
We are more conscious of using the words (the vocabulary) of our language than we are of using any other kind of linguistic unit. But words by themselves don't make a language. Languages include rules for combining words into larger grammatical units - for combining words into phrases, phrases into clauses, and clauses into full sentences. These rules constitute the syntax of the language. The most influential present-day linguist, the American Noam Chomsky (1928- ), emphasizes that it is these rules that allow speakers to create an infinity of new sentences from a finite stock of morphemes.
For example, 'away' can combine with 'ran' to form the phrase 'ran away'; 'poor' can combine with 'John' to form the phrase 'poor John'. In turn, those two phrases can combine to form the clause 'poor John ran away'. A clause can act as a complete sentence as it stands or as a unit within the structure of another sentence as in 'She said poor John ran away'. Words are assigned to word classes according to the ways in which they can combine with other words and phrases: noun, verb, adjective and so on. These classes are sometimes called the parts of speech.
In English (as in French and Italian) the structure and meaning of sentences are indicated by the order of words. In other languages, such as Russian, Arabic, and Latin, the order of words is fairly free because structure and meaning are indicated by special morphemes at the end of words. These are called inflections. For example, the English sentence 'Brutus killed Caesar' translates into Latin as either 'Brutus Caesarem tuit' or 'Caesarem Brutus tuit', while 'Caesar killed Brutus' translates as either 'Caesar Brutum tuit' or 'Brutum Caesar tuit'.
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-1-1-
1-11-1-1
11-11
-1-1--
-1--1
11-1-
1U11-
-11U1
1-11-11-11
1-11U1-
-U1-1
-11-11U
1U1-1U
1U1-1
11-11
11U11
11-U1Z
-Y11-
1--1--
-1-11
--11--
-1--1
11-11-1-
11-11-
11-1--1--
-1-11-
1U11-U
11U1-
-1-11-
-11--
1U11U11-1-
11-1-
11U11
1U1-1
--1--
11-1--
U1U11-U1
--11--1
-11-11-1--
11-11
11-1-
--1-1-1-
-1U-1U11-
Z1-1U
-1-1-
U11U11
-1U1-11--
-1-1-
1-1-1-
,-1U1-
-1U11
1-1-1-11-1
1-1-1-
-1-11
11U11
1U11--
1U1U11-
11--1
-11-11-1-1
1U1U1
-1-11-
-11-11-
1U11-1
-11-1-
-1U1-
U1-1-11U
-11U1
11-11
-1-11-1
U1-11-
-1-1-1
1-11-
-11-1-U1U1
1-1-1
-11-1-
--,11
-11U1-
-11-1-1-
-11--
11-11-U1
-11-1
-1-1-1U1
--1-1-1-
-11--1
U1-1-
1-11-
1U1-11-1-
1U11-1
-1-11-1
-1U1--1-1-
-11U1U11
-1-11-11-
1-1-1
-1--1
1,11-Y1
--11-1
-1U1-11-1-
1--Y1
11-11U
1-1--
-11-11--
11-1-
--11-
--,11-
-1-11-1-
-11-1-
-1--,
1-11--
--11-1
1-1-1
-1--11
1-11-
-11--
-1-11-
-1--11-1
U1U11-
11-1--1--
U11U-
1-11-
--11-U11-
11-11--
-1U1-11-
11-1-
11--1
--1-U
-11-11
--1U1-
-11--
-1U1--
-11-1--
U11-11
11--1--11-
1U1U1
-1-1U1U1
1U1U1
1-11U
--1--
1-11U
-1-11-1
1-1-11
U11-1-1
11U11
U1-1-1
U1-11U
--11-
Y-11-
--11-1
11U1-1
1U1-1
U11U1U
p608-3
How Language Works (3 of 4)
Meaning
For many people the most obvious point about language is that it carries meaning. The study of literal linguistic meaning is known as semantics. The meaning of a sentence depends not only on the meanings of its words or morphemes; it depends also on how these are combined in the structure of sentences. Although the two English sentences 'the reluctant farmer followed the noisy cow' and 'the noisy reluctant cow followed the farmer' contain exactly the same words, they have different meanings, and 'farmer cow the noisy the followed reluctant' means nothing, even though each word is meaningful. Sentence meaning thus depends on how sentences are structured by the rules of language.
By contrast, and as Saussure pointed out, what meaning a morpheme has does not depend on rules, but is a matter of arbitrary convention within each language. The connection between the English morpheme 'tree' and any actual tree is no more natural or inevitable than the connection between the French morpheme 'arbre' and any actual tree.
Meaning depends on much more than morphemes and grammar, however. Speakers convey or communicate much more than the literal meanings of the sentences they utter. What is communicated depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, and on the context in which the sentence is used. The meaning of 'I am the victor of Waterloo' depends on whether it is said by Wellington (in which case it is true) or Napoleon (false). Compare also 'That was fun!' said of a day at the fair, as against a day spent in solitary confinement. 'It's cold in here!' will communicate that the hearer should do something about it if it is said by Lord X to his butler, but not if the butler says it to Lord X.
The study of these contextual aspects of meaning is called pragmatics. Since pragmatics is about meaning in context it is also concerned with how sentences are structured into coherent discourse (this aspect of pragmatics is sometimes called discourse analysis). Pragmatics also covers the contribution to communication made by how something is said: by stress and intonation (variations in pitch), voice quality, body movement and facial expression. In short, pragmatics is the study of the relationship between the linguistic system itself and people's use of that system in their linguistic behavior.
Language acquisition
Every human being acquires proficiency in at least one language during infancy, without conscious effort or teaching. This is their native language. The extreme ease and speed of language acquisition led Chomsky to suggest that human beings are unique in that they are genetically programmed to develop a native language, and that certain very general principles governing all human languages are built into the human mind regardless of nationality or intelligence. The study of these principles is known as universal grammar. It is possible to switch languages or acquire new ones until roughly the age of puberty, but thereafter it is more difficult and requires conscious effort. In addition to the native language used at home, many people have to use a different language in the society in which they work. This is called their second language to distinguish it from any other foreign language. For example, English is used as a second language in Malaysia, as is French in Morocco.
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Phrase markers are tree diagrams used by linguists to show the structure of sentences.
ftsTitleOverride
How Language Works (page 3)
ftsTitle
p608-4
How Language Works (4 of 4)
Language variation
Speakers of a given language speak it in different ways. For example, English is a language, but it is spoken differently in Australia, California, Jamaica, Scotland, southern England and Northern Ireland. The most noticeable difference is that of accent, but there are also differences in syntax and vocabulary. A variety of a language associated with geographical location (especially where there is variation in vocabulary) is called a dialect of that language. In fact, most linguists do not consider that there is a 'proper' form of a language, together with a cluster of 'non-standard' dialects, but rather that all forms of a language are in fact dialects. However, it may be that one dialect may be appropriate for use in a domestic or social situation, and another, more formal, dialect may be appropriate in a work situation or in writing. The whole subject of variation in language in general, its causes and effects, is called sociolinguistics.
Linguistics and cognitive science
The capacity of human beings to store and to structure information, to reason and solve problems, to engage in rational interaction with others and perceive the world in a purposeful way, is heavily dependent on their language capacity. Linguistics thus relates to psychology on the one hand and to the computer study of artificial intelligence and synthetic speech on the other. The connections between these fields are the concern of cognitive science. Indeed, linguistics is coming now to be seen as a branch of this relatively new science.
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
The map indicates the different words used for any running water smaller than a river in rural areas of England.
ftsTitleOverride
How Language Works (page 4)
ftsTitle
##k##
N.N #
p610-1
ftsTitleOverride
The Language of Signs (page 1)
ftsTitle
Contrasting meanings are communicated by a Volkswagon Beetle and a Jaguar. The low, curved and aerodynamic shape of the Jaguar suggest that the vehicle is as fast as a bullet. The people's car, on the other hand, has a round and simple shape that is friendly and unaggressive. The person who buys the Jaguar is hoping the car's image of dynamism and speed will be associated with them, while those who buy the Beetle are more likely to be anti-macho and lack pretension.
The Language of Signs (1 of 4)
A sign is something that communicates a meaning. The English word 'cat' is a sign because it has meaning. But, although words are the most obvious signs, they are by no means the only things that communicate meanings. In the various senses of the word 'mean', a smile means friendship, a top hat means formality, and smoke means fire. Languages are made up of signs in the form of words. But if we allow that a language is any way of communicating meaning, then there are other kinds of 'language', with other kinds of signs. A beefburger and a beefsteak are more or less the same object (although they are prepared differently). But they 'say' very different things; they have different associations for us.
Linguistic signs are the most obvious because they have no function in life except as signs. The things that serve as signs in the 'language' of clothes or food have other functions, however. The language of clothing contains signs like 'blue jeans', 'bowler hat', and 'pink socks'; someone wearing one of these items is - consciously or not - sending signals telling us something about themselves. And just as words combine into sentences, so items of clothing combine into outfits. An outfit such as 't-shirt, jeans, sneakers' is a sort of sentence in the language of clothing. Just as particular combinations of words mean particular things, so particular combinations of clothes mean particular things: wearing pink socks with a bowler hat is a 'fashion statement' - a sentence in the language of clothes with a particular meaning. What meaning it is depends on context: a bowler hat sends one signal in the financial world and another at a student party; braces with a city suit mean something different from braces with jeans and 'Dr. Martens' boots. Wearing swimwear at work would send signals different from those it would send on the beach.
The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure showed that linguistics looks at a particular kind of sign - the word, and its combinations. He correctly predicted that linguistics would influence the more general science of semiotics or semiology, which studies all signs and every kind of meaning.
Kinds of meaning
While it is correct to say that a sign means something, it must be remembered that there are different relations between signs and their meanings. Smoke means fire, but not in the same way that the word 'fire' means fire. The American philosopher C.S. Peirce (1839-1914) suggested that there were three different kinds of sign:
1. Smoke means a fire because it is caused by, and thereby indicates, fire; Peirce called smoke an index of the fire.
2. A photograph or painting of a fire means the fire because it imitates, or represents it; Peirce called the picture an icon of the fire.
3. The word 'fire' means fire for no other reason than because this is the convention people use when they use the English language. Speakers of the Fon language follow the different convention that the word 'z
' means fire. Peirce called the word a symbol of the fire.
Signs are interesting because they are invented by a culture as tools for communication between people within that culture. Examining them tells us a lot about the workings of the culture, and what people in it consider to be valuable and important. For example, decisions about the shape and materials of a building are in part decisions about signs. A state-owned block of flats might express the value 'equality and uniformity among the masses'; a skyscraper might express the value 'corporate aspiration and achievement'; marble columns and floors might express the value 'long-established and respected authority'. Symbols are particularly interesting because they are connected to what they mean only by convention. This connection can be quite loose, with the result that symbols can have vague or wide-ranging or complicated meanings.
Because the word 'language' has so many meanings, semiologists use the more specific word 'code' instead. A code is a system of signs, each one with a meaning. The three colors of traffic lights (red for stop, amber for caution, green for go) are an example of a well-known and very fixed code; but there is also a code of clothing, less fixed in its meanings, but still meaningful. Just as you can learn the English language, so you can learn any code. Semiologists argue that we learn many codes without realizing it, and that we are constantly being spoken to - by the things we see as well as the things we hear - in the many codes that surround us.
This idea is part of the basis of structuralism. Structuralism is a theory that was originally developed in anthropology by Claude Levi-Strauss (1908- ), who was influenced by the linguistics of Saussure. It was taken further by the French structuralist critic Roland Barthes (1915-80), who developed a theory of the structures (including codes) that hold a culture together, involving signs from fields as varied as wrestling, toys, and Hollywood cinema. Barthes was responsible for identifying clothing as a code and carried out a semiological analysis of fashion. Structuralists have tried to show that the same codes exist in different cultures. Levi-Strauss tried to show that raw food, cooked food, and rotten food are three signs that are found, sometimes concealed, in many different cultures, and that provide a pattern for the way people think about food (and even about other things in the culture). For example, different makes of car send different signals and project different images. As advertisers recognize, people tend not to choose a make of car on the basis of how efficiently it will transport them, but on the basis of what image of themselves they want to project to the world.
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
b::^
k :
::^:
::^2:
? >_^
bc:b;b::1
-: :^
^:2:]2
^Y9:U
^2]^:1
::^::^:^
b^:^Y
^::^::^::^
::^::
^:^:
f ::
b^ :
^:_:?^?:>
b :
:b2^:;^;b
;^;b;b; ?
b;b ?:
b^:^1]
?^:^:
62^:^:^:^
:^::^:^> ;
2^2^6:^2
> :;>
^^b 1
::^1
1:> c
^:c c
11^:c >
f^ : f
b^^ 1
b b :
b b
::^:
^:^:?
:b^cf
:b:^::^:
bf_b:^:^:^
:^: :^: :
b^:^
b^bf:
: b b
b b b b f
b :^:^::
bf >
]:Y19
b b ^b^>
f : :
:^::^
f b
^b::^
6^::^:^
b b b
^^::^:^:^:
::^:^:^:
>:b:^:^
::^:b::^:^
b b
b b b :
b f
b b b b
:9^:^:
b^:^:
b b b
1^:^:
:9^:^
9^U::
:^Y:9
::^::
^::^:>-
^:9V:1
^:^::^
::^::
:^29^1^
V9U:]
9^921^
:^:^b
]:U2]1:
^ Y::
::^:^:^
:^:]:
::^:9:^
^:^:Y
^1:U9
:^:^:
19^19
:^Y9^:-
9V9U9
:^:^:^:
::^^ b
9U:^1
:^:^:
:^:^:
:9-::]
2]1:]
:1V1:
^92:9
:U:1^1:
:U2]:
9^Y-9
9V1^1
^19V92
-:^::^:
^::f^::^
:9:]1:
2]29^
::^::^
9^1]2]
-:]19^1:
V:]2]2]2]
::^::
:^^:^:
9V9U92
^ b^:
9^19^:
^::^b:^::
:U9^1:
:1]:1
::U9V
:>^::
9V9V9V9
^1]:1]:
:^::^::
b^> :
::^::
::^:^
:U9U9
:^:^ b
92]29
:^9^::^
:^::^b
]1]29
^1]2]
b b^
^19V91
19V19
:^:^:
]19V9
:U9V9
:U:1:U:
:U9]1
92]29
:U92^
b^ b
b :^
b b
bb b
:b b
>^:^
f^ ^ b
bb:^Y
^:^b^ b
b b
1]11U1U1
^:Y^9:
:9V:Y:^:
b f b
b b
b b b
b b
p610-3
The Language of Signs (3 of 4)
Semiology - the radical science
Semiology has been at the center of many controversies. Semiologists themselves do not always agree about basic issues. Other controversies come from the challenge made by semiology to the assumptions of other disciplines. Semiology looks at works of literature, music and art, for example, as systems of meaning to be examined and experimented with rather than as works of creative genius to be valued. When Barthes used the same science to study both fashion and the plays of the 17th-century dramatist Jean Racine, it was interpreted as an attack on the literary establishment. In this way semiology led to lasting disagreements about the nature of literature and the arts.
Semiology is radical in another way. Semiologists translate the messages that are constantly being transmitted in a culture; they are like detectives following up clues and catching up with the signs that speak to us without our realizing it. Some people feel that the very act of examining the sub-conscious messages that surround us is subversive or inappropriate. But understanding signs is important as a skill - for example, for advertisers, who use semiology to create their messages, as well as for the public, who must learn how to resist (if they choose) the advertiser's hidden meanings.
What are signs for?
Food gives us nourishment. But food can also be pleasant to eat - it gives us pleasure. In the same way, a sign gives us information but it can also be 'pleasant to think'. This is because the sign is not exactly the same as its meaning. A sign has its own independent existence as well. In the code of music, a particular rhythm might be a sign meaning 'rock 'n' roll'. But at the same time it might have a pleasure in itself, simply as a rhythm. Because a sign is not the same as its meaning, it can develop new meanings in addition to the original one. These further meanings might combine. Because signs 'pick up' extra meaning in this way, people find that individual signs become associated for them with particular memories, and particular pleasures. As a species we seek out meaning and constantly consume information. Signs carry meaning and information in complex ways; this is why we need them. This is the basis of personal symbolism as well as personal style - a person's symbolic shaping of themselves for the 'readers' in the world outside; a hat might have a general meaning for their society, but might have personal associations just for its owner as well.
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Gestures and Meaning.
The 'fingers crossed' gesture is a sign whose meanings vary
geographically; it means 'I am protected' in Britain, but 'I am no longer your friend' in Greece.
The thumbs-up sign means 'OK' in most of Europe, but in southern Sardinia means a sexual insult.
ftsTitleOverride
The Language of Signs (page 3)
ftsTitle
p610-4
ftsTitleOverride
The Language of Signs (page 4)
ftsTitle
The Name of the Rose. Umberto Eco's best-selling novel - a medieval whodunit and intellectual tour de force - has for its hero a monk who uses semiological methods to investigate a series of grisly and baffling murders in a monastery. Illustrated here is a scene from the 1986 film version.
The Language of Signs (4 of 4)
Semiology and the arts
Semiologists see the world as a gigantic crossword puzzle, a collection of signs and clues to be interpreted and made sense of. Individual human beings are born into this complex network of communicative possibilities and grow up using it. What people can say is partly shaped but also restricted by the cultural codes of the society that they are part of.
In an extension of this idea some semiologists proclaimed 'the death of the author'. They meant by this that the author of a book is like a machine that plugs into the codes of a culture and arranges and displays them in the form of a book. The meaning of the book comes from the codes rather than from the author, regardless of the latter's intentions.
Semiology has become a part of Western culture. Although it started as a way of viewing language and then as a way of reading texts, it now more generally invites us to 'read the world' as if it were a text. Inevitably, it has influenced how other arts are now received (or 'read'), including films (witness the book How to Read a Film, by James Monaco), photographs, paintings, and music. In fact, it has influenced writing itself. The most famous recent example of this is the novel The Name of the Rose (1981), by the Italian semiologist Umberto Eco (1932- ). This is about a medieval monk who tries to understand the signs around him in order to solve a multiple murder mystery in a monastery. The novel encourages us to think of the monk as a medieval semiologist; furthermore, it invites the reader himself or herself to be a semiologist of the novel itself, to investigate the novel in imitation of its hero's investigations. Eco is drawing our attention to the fact that all detective fiction can be seen as exercises in semiology on the part of both detective and reader.
Films have been particularly influenced by the ideas of semiology, notably Jean-Luc Godard's Alphaville (1965), Peter Greenaway's The Draughtsman's Contract (1982) and George Lucas's Star Wars (1977).
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
:1^2^2
6:V2V
2V2^2
,-12-
--1--
-1-10
-11-,1
-1-11
-12U21
2U11U
1-1-1U12
-V2V1
-1-1-1-11Z
--1-,
--,-1
--0--
-1U1-
-1-1U
-11U2-
:^;V:2V2:2
:^3^2^
--,1M-
V:V::
2Vb:_^V
p612-1
ftsTitleOverride
The Making of Myths (page 1)
ftsTitle
An Egyptian papyrus drawing dating from around the 11th and 10th centuries BC and illustrating the Creation of the World myth from the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
The Making of Myths (1 of 2)
Myths are one of the means by which human societies have attempted to interpret creative forces, natural phenomena and events beyond their control. They attempt to explain, for instance, how evil and death were brought into the world, or how time relates to eternity; they also describe events such as the beginning or the end of the world, or the exploits of cultural heroes. Myths offer insight into the human condition and are a source of inspiration or comfort when human beings are confronted with the apparently irreconcilable.
While scientific discovery may appear to have invalidated the literal truth of many myths, they still remain powerful emotional and spiritual models. For the historian and archaeologist myths also provide an illuminating record of religion, history, politics, racial migration and fusion.
In all of the main mythological traditions certain types of myth have a particular importance, principally those relating to the creation of man, and the creation of the universe (the latter being known as cosmogonies).
Mesopotamian myth
The myths of the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, which date back to at least the 3rd millennium BC, are evidence of humanity's struggle to understand its relationship to the natural environment and to assert control over its unpredictable forces. In a land dominated by the capricious floods of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, it is inevitable that the triumph of order over watery chaos should be a central theme. The myths were first re corded by the Sumerians and later appropriated by the Semitic peoples in southern Mesopotamia in the Old Akkadian period or the later Amorite period. They were to some extent taken over by the Assyrians in northern Mesopotamia from 1200 BC until the fall of their empire in 612 BC.
Mesopotamian mythology includes interpretations of the cosmic forces that shaped creation and legends of heroic human journeys and epic conflicts such as the Epic of Gilgamesh. There are also myths of city gods that reflect the political intrigues of the automonous city-states of the region.
Each year ritual and myth were re-enacted at the Babylonian New Year festival when order was threatened by the spring floods. The myth from the liturgy of this festival was used on the fourth day of the eleven days of celebration. The opening verses of the myth describe the forces at work during creation. Long before the Earth or heaven had a name, Apsu, the sweet water, and Tiamat, the bitter water, joined forces to produce the tumultuous waves from which all life came. Their first creations were the gods Lakhmu and Lakhamu, but before they were fully grown they produced even stronger gods, Anshar and Kishar, the representatives of the celestial and terrestrial worlds. The inert forces of Apsu and Tiamat became increasingly resentful as the creation of energetic and effective gods continued from their original waters. The myth develops with an account of their conflict and culminates in the triumph of Marduk, champion of the heavenly court, who upholds order against the menace of primeval chaos. The battle for the maintenance of order over chaos is also reflected in Canaanite myths, most notably the Baal Epic, recorded on tablets found at the ancient city of Ugarit in Syria.
The version of the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh that has come down to us dates from the 1st millennium BC. It tells of how Gilgamesh, ruler of the southern Mesopotamian city of Uruk, defeats and then befriends the wild man Enkidu and rejects the advances of the love goddess Ishtar. After the death of Enkidu, Gilgamesh sets out to learn the secret of eternal life from his aged ancestor, Utnapishtim, who is, however, unable to help him. Gilgamesh hears of and finds a plant alleged to restore youth and vigor, only to see it eaten by a snake on his return journey.
The Old Testament
The creation story of the Jewish people - and the account subsequently adapted in the Christian Church - is found in the Book of Genesis, the first book of the Old Testament. Genesis uses images borrowed from Babylonian mythology, but molds them to put across its own view of the relationship of God and man. Out of darkness and the void, God creates heaven and Earth, resting on the seventh day after six days of labor. God creates man (Adam) out of dust and breathes the breath of life into him. A woman (Eve) is created for Adam out of one of his ribs, and man and woman are placed in the garden of paradise (Eden). But Eve is persuaded by a guileful serpent to eat the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge, some of which she also gives to Adam to eat. God punishes Adam and Eve for their disobedience by driving them out of the idyllic garden into the world of pain and death. With the banishment from the garden, human history - the history of imperfect mankind - begins. The tale of Adam's son, Cain, who in killing his brother Abel commits the first murder, again emphasizes human imperfection and man's estrangement from God.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1U1UY
0-111T11U1111111111-1U11U1111U1
U1111U
--,--1--
111-1-
-11-1U1U11111111-1
1----
------
-11-1111
Y1U10U11T
1T1111-111T11111U1U111
11U01U1110U
1U1U1U
]U11T
1U1-]U111T
1111,1,
T11T-0U0U1101U1-
T1110U11-0-
0-0U11-
0111-011-11111111-11U-
11U1U1
f b b b
U11111-10-,1
-1U1T-0-
-0101-0--T11-
--11)011-U-
---01-
,---0111-11--)111111-1
-01U11-
--1-0---1-1111-
1111U-11U
11111-U1
1U6^U:Z:
_^b b
Y-]U1
]U0UQ,-
]---0
U-](1yUU
0110UU
P1y1,U1U111
1-]U1
111-0
11111
U1111
111-1
-1111-
-1111-
M,-,Q0
Q,-,U
1---1
UP10y-P10y
yy10Q
-1---1
yyUx-
yTyUyUy
1y1T1
y11P1y
110-1
-----
UQTQ,y01
]U1U1-
}UT-M
M-T1P
-(1y-yUTUU,yUx10yUx
]U,-Q
)0-11
-1T1U
-y1PUUT
yUQUy1
1U11U-
11--11--1
1-11-1--11U
-----1-111--1T
-0111U1
111U111U
-1--,
9y11y0
11U11111T1U1U1
]U1T1U1T1
-,U,1--
1U-1-1U1--
1U10U011-
11-1-
--111U1U1111U1]
1U0U111-
T1-1T1U11T1-1U111U0U]
11111T1UU0UUU
0U1011U0
0U1y9
-1U11U11U1U
1U1U1
1]1-5U1
U-11U1-0
1-1YY1111-01U1U
1--1--1
-U-0-1U
]]-11T1U-1T1
p612-2
$|)T*6+
ftsTitleOverride
The Making of Myths (page 2)
ftsTitle
The Tower of Babel painted by Peter Bruegel the Elder in 1569. The story of the Tower of Babel, told in the Old Testament Book of Genesis, attempts to account for the existence of the diversity of different languages in the world. Noah's descendants in Babylon (all of whom spoke one language) tried to build a tower reaching to heaven. But God, to punish their presumption, disrupted the work by causing them to speak in different languages (thus losing the ability to speak intelligibly to one another). The tower of the myth was probably inspired by the terraced temple towers (ziggurats) of ancient Mesopotamia.
The Making of Myths (2 of 2)
Myths of ancient Egypt
During the Old Kingdom (2575 BC-2134 BC) the powerful priesthoods in the three main theological centers of Egypt - Heliopolis, Memphis and Hermopolis - at tempted to rationalize and centralize the many cults that existed during pre-dynastic and early dynastic times. Each priesthood worked to assert the supremacy of its creator god and his control over the lesser gods and humans. Many myths came to be associated with the cosmic force of the Sun and its relation to the Earth and sky - the powerful natural phenomena that framed Egyptian life. During this period of religious rivalry the Heliopolitan cosmogony proved to be the most influential. It tells how Atum, who came to be completely identified with the Sun god Re, emerged from Nun, the primeval ocean. Re-Atum then generated Shu, the god of the air, and Tefnut, goddess of moisture. Together they produced Geb, the Earth god, and Nut, the sky goddess. Geb's children were the non-cosmic deities, Osiris, Isis, Nepthys and Seth.
Besides the cosmogonies, other myths were born of local cults, special religious sites or of animals imbued with human or spiritual qualities. One of the most important mythological themes, however, was death and resurrection. The god Osiris came to be recognized as both the god of vegetation - the bringer of new life after the Nile floods had receded - and as the god of the dead, who welcomed the de ceased to a new life in the Land of the Dead.
Osiris was believed to have been murdered and dismembered by his jealous brother, Seth. His body was then scattered across the land of Egypt, but the pieces were retrieved by his devoted wife, Isis. She restored Osiris by magic and conceived a child, Horus, by him. Horus eventually fought Seth to avenge his father's death. Their dispute was settled by a tribunal of gods who declared in favor of Horus. Osiris was then brought back to life and reinstated as king and judge of the dead.
Hindu myths of India
The various Hindu accounts of the creation differ substantially, but no two are mutually exclusive. The earliest account of creation is given in the Rig Veda, one of the ancient sacred texts of the Hindus. Hymns relate how Indra, the storm god, measured out the heavens and the Earth, while in others Varuna, guardian of the cosmic law, is said to have performed this task. Another hymn tells how the gods sacrificed a giant and as a result the Moon sprang from his mind, the Sun from his eye, Indra and Agni (the god of fire) from his mouth, the wind from his breath, the air from his navel, the sky from his body, and the Earth from his feet. The four castes also rose from his mouth, arms, thighs and feet. They be came respectively the teachers, soldiers, merchants, and workers.
Most Hindu creation myths acknowledge a primal male deity who formed creation from chaos, although one account contained in the ancient Sanskrit texts known as the Upanishads describes how the Universal Soul took the shape of a man who, realizing his sole existence, declared 'This I am', thus producing the name 'I'. Feeling desire for another he divided himself in two to form male and female, but felt disunited and thus joined the two parts together as husband and wife. Together they produced mankind and then, assuming the form of pairs of animals, they produced all other creatures.
The two great Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, have traditionally been the most accessible and popular Hindu myths. They are regarded by many Hindus as a reflection of the moral and spiritual dilemmas and responsibilities of human existence. Both myths are peopled with characters who display neither perfect good nor absolute evil, and although they culminate in epic battles that result in the triumph of good over evil, no being, whether god or man, can represent absolute good. The notion of good and evil arises out of the inability of the mortal mind to realize the oneness of the Supreme Being, the ultimate reality.
GREEK MYTH
Greek accounts of creation tell how Uranus, the sky god, is born of Gaia, the Earth goddess. Uranus marries Gaia, who bears him giants, including the Titans, as children. At Gaia's instigation, Cronus, the last-born Titan, castrates Uranus for imprisoning her children within her body (an action which perhaps represents the separation of Heaven and Earth). Cronus now rules over his brothers and sisters, and fathers other gods by Rhea, his wife and sister. Cronus eats these gods as soon as they are born, with the exception of Zeus, who later overthrows his father and forces him to restore the children he has swallowed. Later, war breaks out between the younger gods - led by Zeus - and the older Titans, from which the younger faction emerges victorious. Zeus is elected king by the other gods, and reigns on the craggy heights of Mount Olympus, accompanied by his wife Hera, whose cult was originally that of a mother goddess. Authority over the sky, sea and underworld was divided between Zeus, Poseidon and Hades, the sons of Cronus. The family of gods is further extended through marriages and birth, and many myths revolve around the responsibilities, jealousies, sorrows and deeds of this divine family.
Some of the most celebrated Greek myths center on the exploits of Herakles (known to the Romans as Hercules), a son of Zeus by the mortal Alcmene. At birth Herakles strangles two snakes sent by the jealous Hera to kill him, and goes on to perform feats of superhuman strength and courage. His most famous feats are the Twelve Labors, which included the cleaning of the Augean Stables and the Descent to the Underworld. Herakles later became revered as a god - particularly by the Romans.
Herakles' heroism is emulated by his friend Theseus, an Athenian hero noted for his slaying of the Cretan Minotaur and subsequent escape from the labyrinth with the help of Ariadne's thread, and the conquest (with Herakles) of the Amazons, a tribe of female warriors.
Greek mythology extends beyond the Olympian gods through a catalogue of other characters - notably Perseus and Jason - involved in heroic deeds and emotional struggles. Cults developed out of the myths of individual gods such as Dionysus, the god of wine, who was celebrated in orgiastic rites, and Orpheus, a poet and lyre-player.
THE FLOOD
There are widespread stories of a universal flood - in Greek, Indian and ancient Mesopotamian mythology, as well as in the Hebrew Bible. In the biblical account, God sends a flood to punish humanity for its wickedness, but warns the upright Noah (ninth in descent from Adam) of the imminent catastrophe, promising to save him and his family. Noah is instructed to build an ark and to take into it male and female specimens of every species of animal. When the flood subsides Noah is blessed by God, who grants to humanity the Earth and all things in it for sustenance, and promises never again to unleash such a deluge.
Many features of the biblical account of the flood - the building of the ark, the dove that is released from the ark and flies back with an olive branch in its beak - are found in Babylonian myths. The character of Utnapishtim in The Epic of Gilgamesh, like Noah, survives destruction by following divine instruction to build an ark. In Babylonian myth the flood arises as the result of a dispute between the gods, rather than as divine retribution for human wickedness.
kedness.
kedness.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
(xTPyPx,
1T,]x-0T1
y1T01x1T
01x1T0Q0P
UTUT1x1
,1x0UTU00T-00
0P1U,
p,x0t
T101UT010
1y0y]
Ux]1x
,00-1T
UUUU10
T00UT10
,UTX-
TTU0U
y1T1T,
-0y-T
1-Ty1U1
1x0Px
y-1-0
]P0y1
y111x
y1x11
U0U20
,0T,,
T-PTP-,-
]yUU]T,T-
y1U^x
0-x1-
11y0-
,tPPP
xUyUy
UU,x11
1y0P0U0
PTQx,
U--1-Y^T
1y1Q1x1-
TUTU1T
111U1z
UP1,P
-11-9
0-1U10Uy0
y]y]x
U-10-y
y0U,-
yTy8U]T
xy\UT
UT11U
T,00tP(
1111y0
(t(P,LP
10U1yT
ptPpPP(
y0-xT
UU11-T-
x$t$0l
0,0y1Ty
,L,tP(
P,P(P(
$x,t(P
x1U0y0-
0yxxUxPtpt(
PLtt(P
LtPxtP
0TT-]xU
,tPLPtLPtT
tPLPtLt(Ht$,(
t(,P(,
0P0T1
,(t,(
t,$,(t
y\x\x
UT]UUT-0T]
x0x1U1
tPp,t
1-1U1
]UTTTP
y\yTTyT
yUy,,t
UxUx-
]y01x]
]x11T100Q0y01
y0y0U
xUx-00U
10U]y
TyxU1U]
TUTUT
]TT0U
11U1x
y]U1P
UP0uU
tTPx$tx0t
,PxTx
t0TT]
1x0U]T
xTTTtxT
tTt,t,
T-yV0
-x,PT-TyT$]P
T-TP0
yPUUu0
y0U\yUx
PTtTPP
0PTy0
P1Ux-y
1x90y]
Pxx,LTP
PPy,p
yTxt2
]x1Ux1
\1]y1T
,UPx,xtUtpUTx
TyTyU0yP
0]y0U9
x,0QT
L$9-1T1\U
T]--11U
P0U0]]
xTtT$
1,L0P
T,y,xT
P,yTPy0x
1x0PT0t(
U1x9UT
0yTU\1
]P(,T
Pp,(,(,P)y0x0yUPT
$,,LPP(PpHPL
Tyx1U4P
$,P$\
t(t,PT
Tt(y,P,
,P$P,P,,,P
x,yTx0PP
PpPtLPT0tPxPP
P(TUT,tyt0tuU,x1t
0,xt,LUx
,LUTU|Px
pUPL0P
0t1xxTxtU
]UU1y
-Uy0U
Q,UPp0y
Txt0xu
PpPtL
T,,TUT
x,,LT,xPU
xTPxPTx
x,x,xPxTtTtxy,ltPtHPtp,tLxP
y0PLT
xTt1|
xTPtTTPT
xPpTxPPp
xUPtxU
x0P0,TTx,
TxtTxtLTP(P1xPx
PPHPp0x0yTx,TP
Py0Uy0yTTPTP
xtt0p
,PUP,TPxTtxP
xUx,P
UT,1TU
xTTPT
TTx00
LP(Pt
T,,(,x
y1y00P
t(x,xT
tTt0$T
1x\U\x
pTtPTP
TPxTx
PTtT,tx
yUT,(
PP(-TT
y0y11xU]
yTxUxUx
,t(xPx,p
,,PTPT
0x-T,xTyT
yx\P0t
0U11T1-
1-TTyTxxT
LTPTtLPTPLP,
yTyTTx
(,,-PTx
,,0t,L,(xy
TTx00xTtxT
\P0PT
0U\U0U
y1yTy
1-]TU
Ux,-,
y,T-TUtT
,0U1xT
,P0x,x,PL
yTyTxTT,Pxt,tTP,T
,U]U]UyUx
UyTUy
UP0,U1x]UP
1xUyP,
Ty]xy
,,(,t
xtTpTt,t
Pt0x-T
$,xTxUUT
Px-U,xT
(P0P0PP
,xt,LP
(,L1x,x0xT
|Ttyy
P0P0x0tTxT,
U1y0T
1-TP0
Tx,t0xTP(
0T11y
TTT,0
,x,p,P,
UPTQtU
xx,xUP
x1T],1
VT,P,(
x,xPLPL
xTxxTyTxxTy
,TTx,LPT
Tx,$T
y01y10P-
xPtLxx,PLtPt
00Q0xQ
PTyxTy
xPL,x,x
(x,x0
LTx1,0
U0yTP
00P,U0
x1xUy]
p$P,PUP]L
TtT]xyTy
L,PL0t
Ux,P,tTt
0t(T-L
LTTTtT
xTQ0t1x
0-11T
xUx]x
\xUxx1
,pPPPTP
TTPxTx,(T
1x0TTU
1-0-1
pTxt0,
xTyxxTx]xP
Pxt,xT
0x,xx
L,TPT,,
,xP,xU,
PT10P0
11T10
Ux1xU
x,PTPTxHy
xUTTt
UT-x-xTyTxT
P(,xP
t,UTT,
xxUPP
(xUt0t
Uxy0yUxTyT
TTxxT
0T,(,(T
T-1PU0T
UyU0T
xytPyx
TP,TyTP1
PU0-T,
U^U]y1
-TUU0U
y0U]U-
Pt(txPL
PTQ0PU
LTt0txUT,
LPT0t0P
T,T0T
5T11T
yTxUy
1TUy0P
UTt0x
xPL,TUTQxyUPTyQTyxU
x,($\L
t,0PLx
0-TP--
^U1-TV\
TU1P]-T
1y1TTUT
x,x,,L
,x,L-y,U
P0tx,xtTx
,L,xP
0,T1,x0PU
ttPLP,t
x0yTyx
,0,x,LTP,x,,
p0P0PPP
P(T,P
T0-0Q0
-0y]P
TPUy]
-yTyTPx,
L0t0,P(
TtxPL0tx
,x,0P
T00-0-x
PLP,0x0xPxPU
P(T,L
T,T,TT
]T0P0
,U,y0-
U1y01,T
1T1x-
xPxTPT
,U0x1\
Tyt\tU
,x,xxPp
,T,y0
P1Tt1
TP0T1P
,,T,x-
-2P0-
T1T1y0
Ty,TyxTUyTyx
$,x,x,0
YT1P1
y0y-01
U]y1P1
TU1tT
tLP,,LP
Y0-xy
UyTPT
p0UTP
(PT,t
TyTyxUxU
t(PPx,
1T101
T-xyT
0yU1y
T,UU,
LTt(TP,
,PL,x,(P,x
UxPyx
,LTP(PTP(
,,,P,TT
TP(xPPTP
x1U,T1-1U1
,TxPLPLPP,(tt,
,P,xx0xP
)T01T0
Tx0PTx
x(tPL
x$P$,
,T,LxP,x,
-00U1TT1T
xTyx,
y,tPT
LPp,t(PTP
,t(P$,
U0-0U0
U,T-T10y0P1P
1PUxxUT,
0UyY1UP
(tt(tPp
,P,,t,p,L
|Tx1x
U0UQTU
PL,L,tLtLt,t
,PPPp,P
010xyUPTy
TxyTUT
1,yTPy
L,,LPtp
PLtpPpP
UUyT0
t0p0,L
Q1-0Ux,
U0UT0
0QTUT
y,1x1
y]y1U0
PPtpt,
LtPPp1T1
y,xPTt
T0XPP,
x0-U,y
1--T1y9y0,1--T
P,PpPpP
,txxTPTPTt
U0x1x
0y1Ty
P,ptT
tTpPpt
xTtTtxT
111(U
Q,T,x,
U1t1)
y,y,1P
U,U0,-Ux,U1011U
Q0-Q1-0
1U1UV^
,PxtL
tLP,L,$
Tx,TxPxP
U,x,TT,T
LTP1P-0TU
1xT1xQTT1t1y
(U1--1T]
}TUx,
xt,px
x1U,0QT,TUT
1x,1x-T1T
(xUtPxT
L,Pxx
xPPPxT
,T,T0
,y,T]P,
x,pT0
0QTTU
TytUP
x,x,xUPPP,t0
xx,LPx
TTP0yxTP00
xTUxU
TP1y0
51TU,
4xTxt,
T,P,x
0,0,T
(P-UP1
,yTyT
P0T-0P0
0,T,1x
Ux,x-
p0y,x
yT-1TUU
TtUx,
,t(PT
PxP0,
Ux0Ux0U0
UTTUTy
yPy0t1P
,L10101
T1TyT
L,xx,
P(xtLxxT
,LTP,L
xUxTT
,yPy,
,P10-T1
(11Q1T
PU,PTt
yTxy0
tTtTx,T,
QTU,TP
0,xTQ0x
xu1P,T
T,-Ux,
tUxUy
t,x,xU
P1T,(
tTx,,
xPxxU
0yTP]
x1xU0
yUtx,y,
Tx,y0Px
,LUTT
,,P(T,
x01x-
T-0xT
,Tu0P
y,Ux,U
P,p,,
tL,tTP
UP1x,P
xU,yU
0--1U
yx,y,,
,(U,x
txTPTt(PTP0T
P,L,PL
0,Px,
T,U00,0
]y0t,
y0-0y1T
x1x0x
-01,yT
-10-1
(xtTx
t(,t,xP
Ux-x,0
(y,-0
xTt0Q
tTt0t,
Px,,T
,L0x,U
T0-0P1
10y11-
UUUxU
PLx,(,
Q(,xx
(t,L,
PPLTx
x,,tTx
0x1y0P-
1P1x1,x
(t,x,P
TyUy0U
1y1yTP10
--T1U-Y
ux-Lx
PL,9L,x
,UT1U,
-T01TU
)T0-0
TTU1UPP0
x,LTP
,1U01Q
1Y1TU-
T1x1-0
PxTyx-
L0T,t
xUU,x
x,p,x,
P1]Ux
1-,9y-
L1y1U
y1-UTP0
PyU0U0,
TtT|,
x0P(U
0y0P,(
T-0-U
T-Y1UT1
T,T,-0
011Q0Q(
-,-1P1yT
1-x2x
T1PyP
xUU01
U,y1T-1P
Txy0TQ0-
x1yTy,1
L,(xt
UUU-x,
QUxUyU
Tyxy\
M0yyT
U0-1PU
]P1y0L,
-x21]q]yx1--y]
y1y-T1U
1y11y
10y11y,-1T
1T1TU0-1-
}Uyx1
-TUT-
1]PUy1y
UP,xT,
TP,,tL
yUy\yUT
x1y,U
x1-11xU
1U1UT-U,1U0-
,0t0t
-0y-Uy
UQTQy,011
-11Q0-PV
|UTyT
UQ\1x]y
1x1yy
0,U0zxT
YyT1UU
UUy0-11
T,1ux11
P1$]y
UxyT,x
1ty1xU1,
UyxUxyy
t,yTy
(y,TPU,
UUxU0
TU1,P
UUUyTyzU
Ux,,y,
1Ux10
1xU1U1x
QTyTt
-0UT1
Lx0PT
1yUT1T1
yY1T-
}TP0,L
PP,PTQT
PTtTyTU
UxUP1P
,0,,P,
TyTP(x
y0UTTU1x1yPTx-x,0uY
TTUxU
y,1t11(y1y,U
x10Q1
U1x1y
UQ,(P
TyPTxyU
-0yTUt0y
UyTUU
xUy1yU
TxTxx
x1yTyyTxy
-PTyTt
,PP,,
p,TPT
,x0ty
PyTy,L-
P(t,xPP
tTPTx
,,x,y,T,
xUxPT
L,,tP
xxx,x
P(t,ptT
y,1T--x
U,xTx
UxUxUx
]1y0y1T
TU0TPyyT
1Q0P$Ux
-xQxP
UTUx-T,y,
x,,LP
1QTyt,($,
0yQx,x,T
$0$TTPTx
PTT,0
1UTTUxUT1
1XV0U
y1Ux1
t0Pxt
xPP(xt,
1y1TUy
,p,(xPT
0UT0t
P0QTx
,1TV-
y,P,xUxTy
,PLPx$
PT,T$P(
,LTxT
xUP,(
txy,Q,
TQ0y1x1QT
T,LxUxUx
y1-UT-y9y
P1-TT-M
y1y11
x-y-0,yy
$x,(P
01x11
0PPPPp.
T,($,Lx
,0tTx,]
TU1110
tUP-,
uU0y,L0y
,tPP,x
t(T0U
0,TTP0
]P-xT
,QPPL
1y,P(,
P(,T,
^yy11y1Q
PLt,xP
y,PUP
TPxyT
,(Uy0PT
,xTPT,t
(,(,P
yyY1z
y,-xU
tT,PPL0
y1xVx
Uy1,y
TT$0U,P
Ty,t-
]y1Tz
]PyyU
t0xPL
1111x
,)UUTQ
px-xP
1y1xy0Q1UU
,0T,y
y,TTPy
,1]MUx]yyUyyyT-0
Q0Px,(
T,(TP,xPP
t12yy0Q1P]Q
LUPTPTP(
0y1y0P
UTyu]
P,t(x0t1P(tUt,L,P,
,0U,x
y]UVU
y,L,0P
Py,yUtQPx
(-,1,P
TP1t0xPT,
,LTPT
tUT1V
Ux0P(tUtxP0t0,UTt
0yUxU
(xPPTx,
U-0xy
yx]-Tyy
1P,P(PP
PTxt(
P0,,,T1x-x,
x0-y0y1
y-U01y
0y]yUU0xUyy
T,xT,yT
$-xy,U010
,0PTt(
x,T,t0U
TP0$TP
x,x,U
TQ,P)
tTxPT-x
PPLPLP1$
P$1U,
x-,--
,xHTt
x0t,U
,x,xPT
,xTT1
TyUT1U-10-
xt(tT
TPxTP
Tt(T$
,TyTx
xTt0x
t]tx1uT
P,TPPx
xQTPx,0
tyTyt
,xtTxTy
PUPTUTPxx,P
TP,p-x
0,L4x
0UxTuxPQTx,T-t
PxUtytTyP
x,x,(P
5TP(,
tUTU,
xT-,y
\UP1x
PTQxU
1P-P1
,xPUT
y1T1y\
TPTPt
,tUxx,,
txTQUTUy0t
,p0PTP
T,(PxYP0,,,0xx
,0P0P
(0PPT,P
Tx0t0PT
$xPTT
0P1T,TT
P,U,x
T,,,(U
y0,0x
,P1TxPy
-T,,,
,00PxTx
P(0x,P
,P(tL
TTP,yTyPy,p
1ty,-
-1-11
,,,P,
P,UTP,
1yTx1
0-TyT1
-11-1-111U
ux,yP1tTy
t-T,P
,L,0xt,xT
,LTTPP,
111-1,
111-1y
Ttx,LP
,pTxTPtx,P0y-TU1P11U11U
,(TP0P(
P(0x1,UPUUT1)P
P,111,11U
0,0,0
(x1,P
L,L0$
t,TtTt,P0,,
P0,0,(x0T
t,(0P,P
(P(1,t-L
Q]\P1y]
-TxU,
PPPUP
xt(-x
)P1xU
tPPL,
tUttp,P
,x0UP0,,
y,yxU
TU1y1y1UUP1,11
P1T1-T
UP11PU-
,p,tpP
tL,P,
yUxPxU
,P(PT
101U0-
,(t,y
T-U4Q111U
1-111
1U--1U--
0yU$1
)x,P0
U1xU\T
Ty,1TP(
,tPL,Pt
y0Tyx-
1x911T
Tx1yP
y1U9y]-T1
,UPUT
P1P,LP
0U0y011U0
11Y1U
PpPt,
1111U1
Ut,Tyx
TxTTUy
(P(tp
,LPptLxxtTtTtL
01T11U1x11T11T
PxtPPP
t,pPL
,tPpPtpPP
]1T11U1YUU1
L,TT,
0y0tx
tL,tMt-p
M1,(0Q(x,
1T1U1T1
1x]U1y]
TxUxt1
PL,t,
UP,0yx
U0U111y11U0111
Tyx]t
(t,,z
11T11
1U9y11Y]1
1x,1U
PP,(,
QyyTP,(
P(P$,L
-1y1U01]
1Y1U1
1y]U]
$PPLTtp,t(,
tQt-x1
P,,L,
T11T1y0U1\1UU1]1UYUU9y
,yxUx
LPPLPt(Pp
,tLttp,tLPt,
UyP1t-,,
tp,tpPt(
PPLPPL,pPpP
11y1U]1UY9y1
t,Pp,t(
TxPT,
0U1U11
(P,pP
x,LtP
tH,p$
U111T
1UY]Uy]
PLy-y
,,pPtPLP
1UU9y19
xPLPPpt
p,,uT-P
1yUyx
,,t$,
tpPLPt
9U11x10yUy\
,PTPt(
1y11P
,LP$,P,(z
U1T11yY9T
PtTtT
t(PPP,
P$P$$
y911y0
UU1Yy9
]y1y]
T9UT]
1]yU]UTU
1tPpt
(P,,p
UUU]UU
tPLP,p
,Lt(,LP
U]y]y
PtLtpTtP
,Q,t,LT
t(tLP(
]yy1y
tLtt,L
UyUU-
,LPPL
p,t,Ly
LtPt(,
t(ttL
H,$,t(P
,PLx,P
P$t(P
L,tLP
,(,VU
PPP,(
,LP,t
U]]yUUU]UU
pPP(tLQ
t(P,u
tPMt(x
,L,L$
P(P$,
PtP,p
(,t(t
L,tTt
t,pt,
]x1y]
PLPPp-
Ltp,,
PL,LPx
PtPP,
tp,tp,P
PP0PPpT
tpPtt
(ttPP(
UU1UUy2
TP,pP
x$xPPLtLPp,
yVUUy1yU
PpPL,
tPP(t,
,tLTTxPp
LTP(,xP
Pt(tLPLPx$
PP,p,tL$
Px,tP
p,t,t
,P(t(t
UPPLP,
,pTtL
pPLPt$
PP,PPP(t1
1U]xx
txPpt
xt0,pty,
,pPLPt,x,P
yU]y]
P)ttLP
PPM,P
t,PL-
PT,P(y$
$P(l$)
]y]yy
L,Pp,P,,,t(
(HPPP
t(tpP,t(P
PpPtQ
$,(,p
Uy]UUy
]111V
,,TPP(
zYUz]z
1VUU1
,P,P,P
UyY]yy
111U-1
t(t,LTT
1y]y9
,PLP(
U]U]y
U2Y2Y
QpPxt
Uy]\UUyU
211111
,(xPL
y]y1YUU]U
1U2011U
,pPtLtU
UY1UY
UY1xU1y1yUU
11U1-
Ty9yT
1y]11TUU1T
112U1
1T1U11UU1y1UU
y0U11x
U0U]y1
110UUYU11
1y]yU
1T1U0U1Uy1Uy9
U111U01y\
1y]yYU
1:U11
11T1y1
0U110U0
U10U101YU11UU]
--11Y-
TUU10
T11y11Y]
^2]2V
10110-10U0
T110U111T
U0U10U0Q10U]y
111111
1U1U10
,101101U01y
U-01U]
Ux^(y
U1T1-U0U
p614-1
ftsTitleOverride
Classical Literature (page 1)
ftsTitle
Sappho, the Greek poetess of the 7th century BC, was the pioneer of the brief subjective love poem. Sappho's passionate lyrics were apparently written for a circle of admiring women and girls on the island of Lesbos, where she lived. This wall-painting from the Roman city of Pompeii dates from the 1st century AD.
(National Museum, Naples/Archiv fer Kunst)
Classical Literature (1 of 3)
Western literature begins with the literature of Greece and Rome, and the literatures of Europe have constantly imitated, adapted, reacted against and returned to this inescapable Classical inheritance. The 1500 years from Homer to the early Middle Ages saw the birth of almost all the major forms of prose and poetry, and the very concept of literature itself as a separate activity first made its appearance.
From this varied inheritance, the Renaissance fashioned an image of Classicism as a static entity whose values were order, unity and stability. But on closer inspection the literatures of Greece and Rome present a more varied and discordant scene.
Early Greek literature
The earliest extant documents in Greek are Mycenaean clay tablets of the second millennium BC written in the 'Linear B' script, but literature begins with two epics: the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (?8th century BC). These may not in fact be the work of one man; certainly a long tradition of oral poetry lay behind them. The Iliad describes the war waged against Troy by the Greeks to recover Helen, wife of Menelaus - Helen having been abducted by Paris, son of Priam, the king of Troy. The Iliad focuses especially on the wrath of Achilles, the foremost Greek warrior, and its tragic consequences. The Odyssey tells of the wanderings of Odysseus (known to the Romans as Ulysses) as he returns from Troy to claim his wife and throne. Together these two poems established the form and themes of the epic genre for the West.
Homer's near-contemporary Hesiod (?8th-7th centuries BC) wrote the first didactic poetry in his Works and Days (an account of a farmer's life) and Theogony (an account of creation and the gods). More significant, however, is the first appearance of personal poetry in the works of the rumbustious soldier-poets Archilochus (mid-7th century BC) and Alcaeus (7th-6th centuries BC), and above all in the passionate love-songs of Sappho (born mid-7th century BC), the first Western poetess.
The golden age of Athens
Philosophical and historical writing in the 6th century BC marks the beginning of Greek literary prose. Meanwhile Pindar (c. 520-445) and Bacchylides (6th-5th centuries BC), with their choral songs for victorious athletes, continued the themes of the lyric age. But in the 5th century BC an unparalleled explosion of literary innovation occurred, particularly in Athens, the center of a newly created empire.
Tragedy is believed to have its beginnings in primitive rituals. However, it was in the plays of Aeschylus (c. 525-456 BC), most notably in his great trilogy the Oresteia (458 BC), that tragedy acquired the intense interest in human suffering and responsibility that has marked it ever since. The same issues are to be found in the plays of Sophocles (c. 497-405 BC), notably Oedipus Rex (c. 430 BC) and Antigone (441 BC), whose passionately intense heroes are brought into uncomfortable proximity with the everyday world of the audience. With Euripides (c. 485-406 BC) the genre took an intellectual turn, exploring the ambiguous power of language. But passion was not abandoned: there is no greater representation of the extremes of emotion than Euripides' Medea (431 BC), in which the heroine kills her own children. Presented at the same time as the tragedies were the comedies of Aristophanes (c. 445-385 BC), riotously obscene yet politically engaged fantasies in which men ride to heaven on a dung-beetle (Peace; 421 BC) or women take over the city (Lysistrata; 411 BC). The story of the wars with Persia at the beginnings of the 5th century was told by the 'father of history', Herodotus (c. 490-c. 425 BC), in a work that showed a sympathetic interest in the civilizations of the Middle East and Egypt. His younger contemporary Thucydides (c. 455-c. 399 BC) related the history of the later disastrous Peloponnesian War in an intensely personal style that stretched and tortured the Greek language to express the tragic fall of Athenian imperial power.
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
* RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1001\
0TTT8x
00T0P1,xTx
P0T0x0
0PTx,0T,T00
x,T,0T0
4T,PU0x
T0,PT
0x0TT,T
0T,01T0x0
TTTTTTTT0
UTTUx0T
0x,T0,0
00PP0TTT0xxTx,000
0x,xUT,x0
TTx-,
T0T0T00T,0P
\x9xa
0T0x0,T,T0xPx0y0U0
,L0T,
}]x10P0Tx
0xTTTy,T
T\]T0
0TU0x
T0x0T0T
\T9T\U
x,P(y
T,TTx
TxTy0]x
yP0P0
,U0TxT
Ty,T]TT
T0xPxTxTx
0tT,TTxx
\xT]T\
01,xT0
1T,0T
0TT,0TT
x-U0x,T
T00xUx0PT
TTxPx
xxxxT0
TPT0t
xPT0xT
T,1\xyTUxTx
T00P0T0y
TT\T,
xTxx0
P1xTTT
0x00x0
\xyP,(
,T0,T0xT
T1TP]
]T0T0
100x,0
0x0x00xP
TTP\\
PUP0xxTP0xT$
0,TTx
xTPTxTTU0
\0P,T
,UTx1xx
UxT0t0
00TTP
808x80
yxUT00P1
0T1y\x0T|0
T110]
T,x1x
TTP00
0yTT\
(0x8T]y0
0x-T04
x0y1xT
Uy0x1
\,UTx
x00xx
P00P0xx\x
xTxxTy
T0x0y
80]\\TT
}x]08y\P
TTxTT
\0UUx
0x-,\
T0xTyxy
000,0P
P,T0\x\
TtTxTxutTT\yT
TT]P,PTPT
,0u0P
0P0P1y,x0,y0
]U1x9T
T0,x0
1\]91
TT,00
0T00T0
x0TTP,1
Tx]1x
]0919
y00T\]
x99U1
,T0x-
,xTTTxT
091U9
99U]]]
T0QT\0
T0x0U0
T9U89
10P0x0P
xxxTx
]T1]x]
0P0010
t,xxT
\0T\xTT
0]T9U8
19--18
11x0T
0TT40
T,TTPTTTT
UxP0x0T
0,xTP0
0,000T0
T10\00
0t,PtTT
xTT0TTTTTX0
1U81U]
T80\0
00x0P0
1T91U
99]5U9U
T,T80
U0010
,P$,x0xT
x\0U0\0000
]x90T
0x0T000
0tLtxTxx
\T4810
xx,T\
x0T,00T0xP0
P(0tPTtxxTTTT01
01T080
Q]Ue]
\xT8U8T
91]\U1
1T9y\]
]\U11U9
T0xT0
T0908
]0]18
9U8]0
U,,xTy
1]1U\
xTxyTxxT
9U99\
,0T0,0
1\9Y1]
tU0y\
UTUU9y
U\UY]]1]
T1TUT0T
U99Y9U
1\,1P0
Tx00U
1T]U9]1
yTx0U0
1]10U1
11\1]M
T1T01T0
T]U0U
U8U81
0UTTTT
TUT00
Q009\1
9y0U0
U0x00,
Tyy\-
9T19T9
TTx110
T00T0-
90Y0]
T-T0|
4U\x]x-
U0]]1
18]9\
T9T91]
T0TT0T,1
0yTxU
T1]UT1
1TU\1
0T1TxU,
9U\y0
U]10U8U0
yTxtx1xxxU
8]8U0
TTT10y00T\
T1UY]
0U0xTP0
xx0T-
]0]1\
TTxTx\
UTTx1T
xPU0,
U00P0P
xxTP,y\tT
8U1U]
]19\19x
T0T00t
x,T0y\
-0T00
x0xTx
0x\xTx
]0]0-
U9U]]
1T1U0]8
0x1xPTTx0x10
01T9y90
00x0P0TT8TT0
x\yUTx0P
0U\UT
1T]\9
U9T9]9y8
T0y0U1T0
\xUx]
1T]T1T8U0]88U
x1xTT\xT
-0x01
UTU0U,
TPT0U0P]xU
T1T0y8T1T0U\UT
x9x00x0
9T90]0
]1\18
0T0]x
19T10
,T0TT
(1x0TT0
0PUxxT,M\
0x0UTT1
01T\UTyTT18
9-0\1y
0Q0U\y]T8
1T,0x
UUT]00
990]81
1U0Ux\y\
T10xyx0
U0]1T9
0U\yU
U0UTU
TU\1x1
1UTUTxU
]T1x]
5TU]0
T]T0T
1]0]19
Y01T0U0]TUT
TU\x1
U1]1-
yT]T1
T1x\U0]]
1-9]1
99]99
09891
]yxTQ
,U0T\0]
]9xTT10xT]x
-UUT1
T]189
T]T1Ty
y\0TUyT1U
UT980
T-00y
,P01x
-1T0U01x1
TTy0P
90981T91
T0U0U`
U\x]T1T
TU\0U00y8
,]0y00x0UT
T-8x10
1,x\y
9U981T
]\y1TT0x0UxU
]x0U0
0\y]x
10T0U98
1P10T1
PTx\y,
1]]yx
U,yT]
QUT]x
\xPT0
1x]]09]1919T111
]]T0x
PTT\x8
0U0]x1
T,T\U,
8U9]1
U8U910
]x-x0Tx,
1T09]
TTU0Ux
,U8T]T1
90]81
1xUx,
y\UPT]
T11-1T
]90]8U-
]P1x1
,x0yxTT
y09ty8
0TxT0
0,TT1
y00T-y
xT\PT
,x]xxUTUxTU
99U1\1
0U-T0\
y0x9x,
TTUTT,
T910U
0]\yT
-\]89
9UTTT0T0x1
1\9y0
T0yTPUQ0
x\y\P10
T,yPT
9U01T0U\
19]8T
0TTx0U
1T0x0y000
]\Uy\yx0T
]xTP1
T00P0
yTyx1
0U0PT
]1\10
1\]]\U0U1T
1]8U8
T00,,T1UP
]T]]x
010U1
1TxUP
U0xP0xTx0U
x1x0xy0P\yU\x
T]]UTt
,T1xx
09\1]1
0]81]-UT
0xTU,]TxUUT
UxTy1TUx0
T8U0]8U
QTxPP]T1
8UTTT
y-yaUT
]U8]TU\1
1xTP\x0yx,LU
1T]P-
|UT0\
1TTQ09}U
xx]0,
U0]11
Ty1T]0]1
0yTUT
U\yTU
aU8U9
\8]109
9U8]\1
a9]9]
UT1T0U00
]0^9]
\-TyT
1U9T9]
TyTQ,
1T]PT]
UT9xU
U]T1\]
U0]TTU
9TTT8
yUP1xy0T,
U]1x]xU\
U\1\]0
T\TyTU
\]\TTTT1
U]1T1
T100UTy0y0
]T9T1
\9U9U1
U000x
00000
y]y1T9
T1UT1
Txxx0
TU,10
]P]1-
T1UTT\,
]y1Q1
\0111
1U1U89
01y\xT
9]0y1
9UUx1xxU]Tx
U0TT19x]
]0]9T9\1U
9U0\Ut
0T10Tx\U
8]1\9
1\1]0
\]]]]1
TT0U01
1T1T1T]xx]
\U8U0
0T9T]x
,U0x-
TUxxTU\
]1U100U9
\1(T1xT]T
T0T10UU
,M00x
UP(]\U0
xU9xT1-8yU
TT10xy
0911\
1TxP0P
1-]11
0U-UxU
QUx\x
ttyTxU
\T0]\
P0PT1
\9U]]0
Tx\x0
\1T]U0U]yUx]
\y\UT1
]01\9T
TTxUx0T
0TT0-
09]0U1T9
1\1]1
]yx1y
]99U9
]T9]8
UTT\x]
0Ty0U9
U,9]1
10tTP
8U0]1
y11U1
y81x9
U9U9U0
919]0^
U\1]0
1xy\y
U1\]T
U9U9T]
9U19U0
U]\1\
a]8T1
1\\1T
U9]]]
U1]9U
x]U]T9
\11T99
\y9\991
]]]191
]99991\
91]10U
]]1U]]1]9y
8]110]
\99U9
]\09y1
U9991
0]199
]1]9]
1T1tP
\]]y9Ux]]
8U]]1
X\xP0
T]^U]
yx0PTt0
9`180
\19T1
101\\
x0TT\00\
y]9]]1
Y9U1U1
]5U9^9
91UYY
]:]9Z
]:^99
99]1]
]]UT1
::]9^
:]9:]
9}9]U
::^1]
9Y]99
^2]]^:
]::]:^
9^]^:^
:^:^:
]a]]Y^]
U9]99
::]:^
:]U]^
]1]b]:
]^:a9:
59^9]
:V2:]
>^:^:]
^=]:^
p614-2
ftsTitleOverride
Classical Literature (page 2)
ftsTitle
The Trojan Horse, depicted on the neck of a terracotta amphora of the 7th century BC. The story of the Trojan Horse is referred to in Homer's Odyssey. After the death of Achilles, the Greeks pretended to depart, but left behind them a wooden horse, which the Trojans, in spite of the warnings of their prophets, took into the city. While Troy slept, Greek warriors concealed inside the horse opened the gates to the Greek army, which proceeded to sack Troy. (Mykonos Museum/Archiv fer Kunst) PIC519
Classical Literature (2 of 3)
The Hellenistic age
The 4th century BC was an age of prose. The greatest writers worked in genres often now excluded from the category of literature: Plato (c. 427-347 BC) and later Aristotle (384-322 BC) in philosophy; Isocrates (436-338 BC) and Demosthenes (384-322 BC) in oratory. But to the Greeks themselves the prose of Plato and Demosthenes ranked among their finest literary achievements, while it is to Aristotle in his Poetics that we owe many of the central concepts of literary theory.
The rise of Macedon and the end of traditional Greek freedom caused yet another shift in literary fashion. The continuing vigor of literary activity in Athens is evident in the 'New Comedy' of dramatists such as Menander (342-c. 292 BC), whose witty but stylized humor of situation and intrigue lacks the satirical edge of Aristophanes. But the center of balance moved to the kingdoms of the dynasts who succeeded Alexander the Great, above all to the court of the Ptolemies in the new city of Alexandria.
The greatest figure of this 'Alexandrian' or 'Hellenistic' age was the scholar-poet Callimachus (c. 310-240 BC). For him, artistry in literature was all, and he railed against 'big books' and empty archaism. Also notable are the beginnings of pastoral poetry in the Idylls of Theocritus (3rd century BC), where for the first time in the Western tradition the figure of the herdsman came to symbolize the tensions between city and country, art and life.
Greece under the Romans
The 2nd century BC saw the growing power of Rome impinge more and more on Greece, but this by no means ended the story of Greek literature. In the work of figures such as Plutarch (c. AD 46-120) - best known for his Parallel Lives of eminent Greeks and Romans (much used by Shakespeare) - it displayed an assured confidence in the continuity of Greek culture. Christianity was as easily assimilated, and the flowering of the new Eastern capital of Byzantium (Constantinople) has left us more works than survive from the rest of Greek history put together. Byzantine literature ended only with the sack of the city by the Turks in 1453 - and by then the great works of Greek literature had once more begun to make their way to the West.
Early Roman literature
From its beginning Latin literature was heavily influenced by Greek. The first work of real independence was the Annals of Ennius (239-169 BC), a historical epic of which only fragments survive. Better preserved are the adaptations of Greek New Comedy by Plautus (c. 250-184 BC) and the North African Terence (c. 185-159 BC), in which the native Latin traditions of wit rejuvenate the bland Greek originals.
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
* RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
(P(P,,tTuTTPL,-,0txU
t(t1y
xPP(,P(xTPUT
TUTUx
t,QLQPUt,
PTxTPTt
TxPLTt
TxtTy
t,P-p
LPPLT
,xPPPPx0x\
x]x0yT
UytPLyPx-p1
x-P,P,
10P,x
PLxx-
(QPP0PM
,TUTx
yUPUTPy0t
xyTxU
L,x0y-Ty
,P-P,L
,1PTx
L,P(P,
0tUP,yTx,p
y,xUtTPTt
,t,qP
,Ux,x
(P(P,(t,
TyxUt0t1xTPTPx-T-xUPU0
-x,yt0
xxPUxU
,0y0P
,L,P,u(x,L,
P0P0t0P
,,(,L,0
t,L,P(P
T,x,,(P
P-p,PL,y
1xx,L0Q1t1PMTxPx,y
,xTt1
1Tyx,
PPPty
tLPPTPu
Ut-L0t
x,TUP
-,PLT,M,,P
TP-P(P
UtUPP0t(
,yPQxxt
xxTPTPPy
(t0PLPP
P(,,(
xxTU,
,T-t0xTUt
xPPTTPPTyPyTyxUx1
TtPpPx,pTTP
P,LQ,t
PPPLPpP
-(,M,PPU
1t-,(t
x-0y,ux1x
tUxTyyPT
xPTPL
TtLPPxPP
,t(-LPU
(,P(t
Tyxx-xUt,
Tyt1xtTtT
,L,xPt
Ut,L,,(P
x,p,t-x]0Q0P0
Ut(y0xU
ytTyPtU
yTy,yTQ0u,txQ
TQTyTy
Tt,t,P
x,yxP
PP(t,
,(P,P
$TP0P
0T,L,
,t(x,
TQT,,t0uLy,u0PTPT
xu0t1
UTPtT,,x
t)x-x,tUyT
yxQxtTyt)t0
ytU$U
QxUtUt
pTyPTUt(u,pt0
PQxt1xyT
p,t,P)x,y0P(P,,)P
Ut(-x
TPxPTPQ
L,PLt0P
P(,xQxP
t,L,,L
Q0(yTQp1
UtxPTPytUP0tUxU
yPPTtTyPUx
t,x,T,xP
xQt(P(TPx
-Tx,(P
u,t)xx
0tuTyxTt1
tuTu(x,t
xQtTP),tPLPxtTt-(xPP,(t
1t,P(P(P,(x,0y,
yTQTQUTt0P-P
LPt0U
,P(,P
,(P,p
tLx,PLx
pxQtt,uT
PUTxyTyPyxQx
TtxTyUx
Qt(P,x,
x-y,Py
t(xy,xUP(xPx
Ux-tUt,
t(tTu0
xt(Ut,p0QPL,pP
PP)P,
,yTP(P
(,(P,L
TxPUxPy0
1x,yUPPy,u0t1xPy
Uxx,uxP
-0x0xP
PTP(PTQ0-p1tP
xu0yPtQTx
,p,(t
THUxTt(t,TQ
,L,tLP,,PL
,Q(,1
P(P,(
,L,p,xPL
t,0P,(P1P
L,1t-x,x-TPyxt1
,xUty
,yPtxTux-
TtPy-xuTyTu0
(xPtx
0P1t(T-p
,0t(t
px,yt0xPyTy,
PTyTxPP(P,
,uxt-
-t)t(P(x,,(P
,p-,(U,1t
P(Ut,L
Py-x,(
P,L,,
P,(P,L,P
PL,P(
t(P1P0$
Ux,,P(y
,qTyPx,ytTQLxtUxx-yxU
]xUxTx
UtPP(P
QTQP)P1P,(,(y
,xtTt
t(P1tPL,
xPyPP
UxUx,p
P,t(xPPL,t(U
,L,PP
P1P1P(y0t,
LP0P(t(0P(
P(,t(tQPx-
UP(P(P
tPLUy
pxPLTPPTTQ
UxQPyTQt1t(yPtT
0t,tyTy
Pt1x,
,p,LPP
10y0t
tTPLU
yPLUPu
UtPyT
,yPt1
PtPLPp,$
xuP(tUt(xPtpPPTtLTPPPLPP(,$0t
TP,MPP(U$,p
,(,Q(1
,yPU,MT,x,P1
xU,,P(P,LTx,t]
yTQT-LP-
xPpy,p,txQP
yu,uLxxTtuT
TyPtpUx
p,xtT
TT,tP,
(,Pyt1P)t0t)t-x0t,TuLU
uxTtU
TtpxQxtt0
PQxtTPUx,y
,LtqT
yPM,,p0t,L,P(
(xP,(,,L,P
t,MPx
L,L,P
P(P,P
tTtPLxyTUxTPPL-PLPyTUPPLPTt(x,x-T
UTxTQTxTtTUTy
TPyPx
,PLxPxP
PPPL,PLx
p,t1x,PT
xQLUT
TtLt,t(P
QLu0PxyTPTy
tLxtt,x,t(
t(tQ(t(
PLP-(PP
U,,1t(,
Qp-U\P
p,PTt
L,,Qp,
PxPLx
UTP,L,
L-Txx,
P(,P(
L,P(P
(P(,t
,yP(,,
x0xP1t,tQx-pPxP
tx,ty
TPPttU
,p-tUxQt,
tQPPx
txPxtx
(x,LTP,
UPQTyPxTxtLxQ
txQpU
yPyty
P(xUt(
,x,pUtT
LPU,MP(
,(x,,L,QTu
t,LPP,(,L
P(,L,P
xP(x,xy,UP
0x,tUtUx,xPpTP,t0UyTU,yxPxt
TP(Ty
PpTxPx
0x,|TU
p1x1P
x-P-x-x-p1PPx1
PxQxuTuTy,pTty
Pytt(P
,xPy,t(tTt(t,PPy,tLPTt0tp,P(,PTP,
P,TL-L,0P
,P(U,
(PLP,MP,L-P0$x
PP-TP
L,P,p,P
x-,1x,
xPMPTt1tTT-
-xTuTxTyQx,MT
TP,xxt
xtxPy
x1t,xPQxUtp1xx
xytUtyTut0
TxQx$
,yPy,xTt,
TPLxyTxt(t,p,t,0PLQP(PPLPP
x$UtP
TP,LPTt
y,y0,q,Q0
,,(P(
L-L,P
P(tTPt(P
(,(,(
P0T,pU
PLPTy
xUxUPT,
,Px,PTPPT
Tuxt-txPt(
Uxxtx
1t1t1,-
1P)t,x,(xPyx,
xTuTt1xP
Tx$xPyPPqx,yxPtyty$t(t(y,ytLP(t,(,P(PQ
,yt,(P(QT
x,TPL,-,
M,P(P0,,L,P(
,x,LPTP
x,L,,
PTLtTU
-t(TtTy
tLxtT
,y,PUP1x,TT
pUP-TPPLPyTxPyPxtU
UPTy,x,t
Pp0Px,Px1
$1txP
,pPTUPPpTyTtUxTPTPtLPUt,t,,L,QLQ,TU
(Q,-t
t,P0x,
(y,P,,LTtxyPPL
PTxUx
TPxPx
UTP(T,M
,,,xt0t1
uxPxQ
1x,tu
(P,L-
,xPLPt,p,x
x-xTy
,xTt(x,L,pxPP(,P
t,L,M,L
QTP(,p0Q
PP(PP
,UPPL
0,L-P
LTy,(,
,PUPTytTP(t-p
UxuTtxtpUtPx
xQxtU
(y,t(,,
L,L,,y,TPLU,xTP
,yTyTt(
xt,(tT
x,LTPptPptPyyT
TQUtyPxPL-x,xPx,TP,L,P,L,P(t0PP
ux,LTP
,Q(P,
,,xu,
,p,(P
PxTtLP,PLUP-xPt(t,0
L,xPUxxUx,
xyUtt
TyxtLyx
L-tTTP)T
TP,xy,tMTPUt,yyTtP
PyxTP-
,LTtLQ,tL
y,xPpPPLU,tL-xPy,L,t(,LP
LyPP0,U
t-T,L,
(Pt)x,yTt,
0,P(T
P)P(PP
P(P,L
P(P(,p0tM
,yTt(
yxyPyP
PxuTt
TUx,L
yx,P(,p
xPP(x,xPTxt
UtPpPL,pP)tx,x,
TPtL0P
xx,pyPLx-pPp
TTQyTytUtp,PLt0u,LPp,L
tTtxP
(P,L|
p,t,y,LQ
t,P(0t)P
M,P(PM
,L,p,P
,x,x,P(PP,1PQy
yPp0P
(PPM,
y-xyTu
t(QPTu(,p
p,t(x0
PLPUtU
yTtxyxTP,x,ttt
,tTxPtTPQTPy
PpyTxt,
1PPPPpUt
Qx,x-(
p,,p,LTQ
xt0QT
PP(P,$
(x,L0t0
p,,L0P(xTTT,pT
PxtTtUx
TxPPt
LUPLT
t0t1t1x,xPx,xyTt
UtTtp,-xUxU
xPx,Mx
tUt(t,tpt,pTPPx,UPPLPLPTt(T$T,,p,t(yTtt
MTP(P,
x,,L,y0,P
(,P,Lx,(P(PT
t1P(P
P(PPt
t0P,p
p,y,(PPL,q,t
tLP,Mx,x
xPx,x
,(xPyTu
TtUtU
PTPUt(,PTP(,t(P,TtLxt(TUx
xQxtTPT
xTt(tLPLx,p,x,yTtMPTP,LU,LxPTp,L-xPLUTT
$PLT-P(T
t0,t)xU
(,P(,,L0,
(,P0,,
L,,L,
tP(P,
P,(,L,t
x,,y,L
,PPP(1PT
QTxTP-p,yx
xTt(xx
-,Ux,T-y,p
u0T,x-xQPxPQUtTQ
ytTyPMTu
xUlUt-
,tTttPyt(xtt0PTQ(x-PTt(Pt,
,M,uT
,L,P(PT
,MTuTt,L,,L,
PPLP,L,-P(x,P,(PT,P(PTPL
Tyt$(PLxUt0
tPPLP
-TQTtU
,yPPQ
x,TP(,t,p1xPTxPL0xxP
yP,Ut
x,ptxPu\
P,U,0u\
PTxt(t,p0tPxPLPpTx,t,LPt(t,(
LQTtUxT]
x,L,TUP
-p,t,
p,x0t0x,pyPp,L,PP(PQP
,(PtL
t),,L,
xt,(P(
,M,L,
,(P,,L
L,,L,L,LP
x,M,p
p,t0tU,LPT,pUxTyTy
Uxt,p1
xtTxt
UPPU,xt(PPQ(y,PPMPxPP(tLyxxU
uxPyPyP
xtTt(t,PLPxt(t,pPp,tQP0pQLUP
PPPLU
y,)t0x
,x-TPy
PP(tPPPPLPUPLP,x,P
P(P(P
t(PT,
L,P(,-p-,
t(P(P,,L,t
P(,L,LP,p,
x,,x,LPPPu0P(PLPL,P)
uTyt-
tLUtxt(t1t(
-,xQTt
x,,,x
(TPPLUTtyPpx
,yTtLP-
Ut(t(
PpUtLP,P0u0xTPQP0t0tLPTt(
t(xUPUx
L,x,yx
y,(t(
t,(P0t
x,x$TQ
(PPpTP
pTPt,
PTt,L,
y,x(x
QxtTu,L,
xQx(yTy
,x1uTt(xP
Pp,t,P
UPTP-P
0x,PU
UyxQx,y
t(,y0$x1t
x,LUt(xPp,y,xU
t(tP,Q
,t(txPyPMxPxt,p,
txLt-LPP
t(u0u
x-L,P,,
,P,tTt
t(,p,0P(PTPL,P(tPLPP(P,
PL,PL
y,L0,
TPTPLP(,xxPL,,Pt
Pxtxx,LPxx,M
0t-t-pTP
L0tTt,x-x,xUx
,yx-T
UTtTxTuT
TT0P]
y,Q(x,yP
t,p-x
xPxtx-p
xxUP,(y
TxtLxP1PU
yPTtPtqt
Pyt,pPtPL
PLxU,P,(u,xPP,xQxPT,-0,
,Q(t0t
P,(PPx
p,tL,L,,p,t
t,LQt(P,L,P(t,p
,P)P(P,QU
)P1t,p-,
yP,p,0P-x
LTTyTtUtTP
xuTxyxTPUxP-xx
0t1x,
yxPyP
QLPTP
TU,LTPPPLUt0tP
,(xUTy
,pPpxPy
TxQpxU
,p,L,LPt(t0
P0PLPTL,T
TPTQTPTy,
PLP(P,MTQT$P1
(,y,,pP
TPLxPLx,,p,
xtLPP(
tTp,,p,,L,(P
x,ptQ
t,L,0PUxt,p1tL-Tt(x,q0P(
TP(,Py
)tTPT
TP,(t
PTP-p,xT
tUPyx,
PLt,y
T(P,QLt
Ut,tU
yPyt,x,L-
,tPpUP,xPPMT
,L,(PP
(,,xPLPx
,p,p,P(P,p
PT,PLP,L,tt(P,,TP
,0P(P,t
(,L,PUt
(t,P(,x
(0tTP
tLxUxPTtPxy,
uTPPxy,
yTyTyP
1t,TP
PLTt0Py
PqTtx,,
u(P0P)t
Ut0yTxtTP1
qPpTtt1t-
P,(1PPxxPyy
PtxtPLPt,t
p,tTQTL,t)t0uT
,TQxt
x,P(P,,P(xP,x-T(P,LP,p
,L,)PLt0t
P$,L,x,
,p,T,
px,P(
LQtp1t,yPpPtpTtx-x,x0t,Ly
,TQTUPxPxTyxU
xP,tQTy
]y1Pp
xQxy,x
TP0tt
PxPt(ttT
TP(xPL,
(x-x,,TPxPx
Tx,yT
xyUtLQ,
t,ptT
L1yTtqTt
TtPLPt
x,p,y
PLt,t(tTP1
,pPU,p
TQPMPP(1t
,yTt,LP,(xxUtUp
t(P,(
L,t(,TPLUt
y-,Uu(Q,
,,,x-Q
L,(P(,
,(P(Q0$xPLTP,(t,yPxTQTP(ttTP(
xPLTP
-P,(P
,pyTxx,
0xPxxP
yPxu(x,
tTyPx
x4xPx0
QT,x,P
,x,(t
tTtxyx
TtPxtx
,LUtPp0
,t,qTtxPy
T,Q(,t(U$
L,P(P)-,x
,L,P(t,p
Lt(P-p,(x,L,-P,T
1t1P,p
PTP,LU
(,P1TPTP(,x,x
(-TPx,xPUPx-LUP,pxQ
UtUPxUxUP
,yPxQxU
PPTyt
L,P(t
t-L1PTP,P1xQxQ
UtLt,
PxtTP)
p,,ux
t0PLTQTx,y,TTt
,p,P(
tTPp,p,L1t,P(P,(
t$,,p0P,t
t,L,(T
p,P(t0t
p,t,L,LTuTy,xTtT,L,
xTx,y,,y
Ut,yU
,LTx,Q0
,tTuTX
txPtx
,y,x,,
t0t(y,p0t,
1t,pyt1
Px,L-
,MtpPL
yTuTuTtUPQLxQt
LQPxPP(Q,x
,L1,(P(
UxUPp
,U,P)x,1PTx,yyTPU
UTP,q]
,(P0,-P,p,,L,pt
U,P(P
,t0t1ty,p,
xTtUxQ
]$P-t,y
yxxTt-
PpTtUx
pT,,p,L,,P(QPLUxtUxxTx
tpTt(
,tytUtT
xTtx0PLP0txPyTxPx
TP1TPxxPt(tTy-(-
xxTPT
P,(PUP(P(t0-,
MPxPLT,p
,u0P0tLy,
PPpUPQxtUxuxQx
ytPLt
PLTPTx
yxUxQt
y,yTyPxPt(PP
,L,uTt(t1PU
,py0P(
TtUpPUTPt(t0
L,,t(t0t(,L,
P(x,(,t
t,p,t,p
p0,p$,,
(PPL,t0t
PQLT,,tTP,yT,PL,Q0PLP,L,
yPy,yUxx
0xyTQx0,
]TyPyTyPU,T
LT,M,tp
TxxTP(ytTy
yPxxTtP
TuTtpP$U
,pTP,p-p,tpxPp,x0
Py,(1t
,tPTL-TxQP
Txt,$
p,LP-P(
TPLP,pPP(,P(P,LP,Lx
,x,PTPL
U0P1P0t
0u,U,LPL,P(PPL,,t(t0P1L0t
x1tTU,(,P(
(t1,(
T,,UPTPp,
yTt,xP
xTPx,
TyxUx
,PPTPQ0ux,x-xQt,xU
tTtt1tU
yTxxPy
LtLt,LTt,
tUxt1,t-T
xyyx-Tt,P-tT
,L,PTP(y,p,p,P,
P(P,P(
P($,U,(P,,(P,p-,t(,(P
,(P,p1
,TQP(,t(t,p0P-P(t
Q,yTU,t
LPL,p0xTPTP
TPx,L
TPTtUx-p1t,
TtUT,
xTtPx
y0t(x,PTPUPLxT
xPLPT
PyPpy
-ty0tUt(
L,ty,
-p0xU,xTx-px
pyTP(xx,
p,P$,,pt
(P(t,PLPL
t(P,P(,P(P(PP
P,p0P,P
0P(PLTP(P
,(t1,x,(t
tUxy,
TyPytPxt,tTtU
pt0uUxy
PxuPtT
,(tTP(t)t(x,t)TUPxTtxQxxPp,y
ty,L],
]L,Uyt0t(tU
PTQTP(t0yt,yPyT
x,(t,,L,(
p,t(,(P(,P(
,P)TUTP,LP-(0UHUP
,t,LU$uTt
L0PTPL,T,M,TtP0tTP(PT
tTyT,
UytxU
PLUPTPTPPUP)P
pUtyxPxTu,x
xuTxQx
(txP)
,yTtx,p,p
PTuyP
yPMTP(
PUt0t(P$
p,t,P
,(,TtLP0P
(T0PL
x-TPyx
x,LUxPQTT
(tPUP),t
t0PxT,
,U,xy
,PTPxUtTt(t
x\0P1PTy]
xUPTP,
x,p,,t(x,yPL
tUtTtytTxuLPU
xtTu(tTy
-y,UT
tLxtTt-
1,xPUP
,(Px0PUPyP
p,tLt,)P0PT,LTP(
t(t(,p,(,P(
,L-Px
1P,1t
P(TP,
pTy,q0tUt,y,ty]
TPTyT
,P)x-x-x1t
xxPxPxt(t,xU
xPQxP
UtytLtUP1Py
PP(,L,t(t
t(,L,,p,(,P(,L,P
0P,(,LUPU
,xy,y
TQLP0tyTx1tUP1P
]x0y,p
-LTyTtxQx
P(x1x,pTt0t,x,
,tUxUtxP
xPq,QLyTt,yxUtPxP
,UtpT
TtTtLPyTP
t,LPTPL,,L
x-P,Pp
PP(P,t0uLx,t(PMt
PL,t0,P(y,PLPU
U,P,x
1tUt)xyU
,p,(t,t
Tx,x,
yPy\yTTPMu
0u0xtyPyt
tTtTt
(P1tPp
PPLxutytTu(
txPyx,
,pUtPLUt
tUyPPMPPTuLPy
t(PPp,px,(
(P(P(,
P(PQp,P0t1P
p,P(x
1PUP,,
P0y,t0PT,,x,P
,L,-,T-p0P,t,(
-x,xPT
TtUxx
(tTT]L1
x,yPP(t,P1tM,U
TPPxU
,xPPt)
Lxt-xtTtxPtTtL
LtUP,
xPx,xU
Pp0t(P
,,p0,-t(x
(,,LP,P,y
,x,x,(PP
p-t0,L,p
,L,-p
TtL,P,P
PLQTP(
,,t,L
pyTPLxxPLUxP
y1TUx,U
P-xP0
P(UTtx0,yPL,tUt
,xTt-
,ttxPp1
yUxPTt,txPxPU
PpP,P
0x,t1P
P,p,p,P(t,L,,p
t(t(PT
PUUTTx-0y
tUxTP
t,p0Q
PTPxPP
TPuTt
,,pTPpP1x,t0tPLUx
xUtUP,,
xUuxPtTtx
TxPxttTtpQx,
,yxUx
y,xQxy
,tyPxx,txP
QL,PLt,PPp
p,t(t,(Q,L,
t(P(P,(PLPP,L
,0u,(y
Pyx0P
TPTtTyxPx
TxUtTtxTx
tTxPxT
t(yt,ty,yxQ
yPp,t
,xxxPxt1PQ
y,x,qPyPy
yx,(P,L,QTP
PQxPL,t(PPL,t
PLP,(P,
,L,x,L,L,,,T
Pp0yt
t,q0y0Py,
P,L,P(P
t,L1,y0T,P,x
PLQxPpP
-0tTQx
p,M0,
TP,P,Lx-
tUt(yTt(
yPtyPy
tUxQx
PtTyPPUtx
xQxUy
xUpPyt,x
PL,P(,t,yTP
LPPTP(PPLPP(PL
PLP,(P(P
-x,x,(PL,p1,
x-t(P
y,0P1P
,(P1,L-pTuTt
P(xTxP
t1P(t(tTt
xPL,QPp
TPMxQ
TyyPUP
,Y0y,-t-
yTyPy
(t,PLU
t(xPPLP,,,p
P(tUtP
x-(PUPL
,P,L,(xU
,,L,T,
P(P,PTx
,yP1xTyTtTxPytTy
PPuLyx
u0t1ty
U,PLTQP,
PPPxtyP
T,ytT
xtuP0P
-xyTuTu
Txt,y
TPUx,
,xxP0
uTP(t
t0t,pPP0tUP(P,L-p
,p,PLP(P,pP,p,
P(P(,
P,tPUxPUP
,tMx,
t)x,P(
xTt1t
P1t(Q0P(P,xqU
Pxy1t
uTPUTx
L,(t(x
xPPUxtT
0tPpT
x,Ut,
,TPty
,tyQx
,p,P1ttUxtPx,p,p,p,pPt,x,t
(PP(P,(PPPLxP
,t(,P(t
TPU,(t(
x-TPT
P,0PQx
pTyxT
PPx,p,PTP(uLy,LTttU
,pPpt
P1xPxU
p,t(ytLPt(xP(,t,p,t,M,pPLTP
x,P(PPL
y,t)t0tp,PU$,pP
PPUTt(
PPL0t(tPt0P0
TP,(P
xPx,L,)P,xtUt,(yPx
TtUx,x
TuPtTP
q0t,x-
,t(PT,PLyPLPtx,p,P(TPTPP
P,L,,M,PLP
0P1,UPL,,x
(P,LP,
,PTPU
0yTPUxtUxP
,ytTxPP
tTP(x,P,
,x,xt(PUtTy
Tu0QxUt
xQtLtTxy
tTQTuTy
UyxUt,
tLPTP
1tTPP
t(,P-p,LUxQx
PxPLPL
T,L,,tTy,pxUTP(P(PL,
(T,$-
0PLx,x
PPTPP0P(xty
01xtTU
xUxP(yPTP
xTx,t0xt,U,x,xU,
t(t0P(x,t(tTt1
xtLt,t
x,t(P(tLPPLPu0t
xPPTP(PL
xPTPLPy,L,M,t,x,(P,P(tPt,(
xTP,M,
t),,P,
PUt(,x,t(,M,
TtTT,
Utx,xQ
tx-xPx-p-xU
,UTtUxQUPU
pyPPLP,y-LPL
0t(tTt(ttty
PxtTtLxtT
PyPtUt(
t-y$PPx
$0,x,L-x,p0y,(Q,xU-
H0P,(
,P)PLP,L,L
xPxP(t,T,t
L,tPu
UP0tU
LyTT-x,t(0Qty
,p,Tt(PPxPUPP,yxUttU
QptxU
t(UT,P
xUtTQTQT-
xPtpPL
,y,yTt(t0t
TP1PT
u,x-(P,
TuxTU0T,y
x,y0x1,y,xQTx
p,tL,PTtxTP
uTxtP
tQxPT
xPyPL]$,t,p-x
PUt-x,PLu,$,,TP
$0TPP(P,
L,TPPLPp,L
y,y,L
,yUtU
Tx]$1
0P(xT
PLTy,Py,tp,t\t
xyTxUx
LTPLP$
)0t(t,uTULUx
P(x,LU-L
,(y,(
(P,MPLPTPPQx,
P0,xtUxPQLt
1uTTUx
,yTQ-
xUPTPUTTTUt
0t(,x,L-putLUPLy
txt(yxQy
UtPpPLtP
xPxPpPxUx
PQ,PL
Tt1t0PLx,tt
TyP)xPL-,xT,L,
P,P(tT
,L,PLt,p,PPPLP(x
xxtUP
TxtTxU
,x-0U1
P,-,P(t,xuPyTP
PPLxP
PxuTP
-TPLQxU
Tt,-xUP]p1PUx
xUt0H
L,PLP
L,P(yTt
t(PPx,pUP0
PM0xtx
x-xUty,LUxT-x0yT
,P,p,LUPTt1t(ty
TtTtTPTP(PT
PptxtTyy
yP(t,
pTQpPPPyx
x-x1Pyt]
HTP-x,tTtTTtp,0uPx
P0xtTPT
uTP(tpTtx-t
y,1PTUPUP-,M
PLPpQTQp,
,pPpP(PPLQx
1tx1,
Q,x,T
,x,L1,y,M
P(P,p
x,LPL
LPx,ptLxt(x
xTUTu
TP(t,M,
x-0t)PTx
PyTPTupU
LUtMx0U,,1
P,x,xPxtTy,tTt(tyP
LPPLt0t1t
0tTx,x
tLPLP
L,t,pt]x,L
,,$,L,(P
Pyt(xtuLx,PttTt
t,y,p,
,yPx,
yUxyU
tTuPxP
(xPL,1tPp,yx,tLx,
pTPLPP
t(yPx
,Py0},xy,L,
xPy,p
y,pPu
PU$y,
ty,(t1P
,P(x,UT
L,y0P
PTuxP
LPP(P0,LUx
,U,y\H
Tx-LUu
u1xUy,
ut(tTP
,LPLtLPTyP
ttPxt,LQPTty
QUtxUt,pU
UPUPU
tLxtxQx
PL0t(
p,tx9
t(PL,LP(
TPUT,,y,
tTt1xPP0P]L
Tx,,,x
xUT1y\
TxtTu
pTt,t(t0t0tTt-p
TtTxt,pPTTuxTxP
xyT,y
x,x,U
TPL,P(
,,yx$xPL
x,M]P)
,L1T,
p,T,yPP
x,xuTtT
TuxUxQT
0P)1y
,)T-x-xyTx
PPLxTt,p,pPxt(tTtUy
yPpQT,LPy,
UtTP-
UPPpTtU
xUTtU
1t-p0
,qTQTP
yTy,y,
t1P(,P
QTTP1
UtxPxT$tTx1P
t(,P(Tt
(yt0,
P0(,Q(PTP
(Px,U
x10xU
tP(y,yT
)Tx0x-
,y,tPxPLPLU
PxTxuTt)PTPpyTt
TtpQxtU
TP,(1T
,1t0-PTPPL
1PUx,
PT,(P,
x,(PUt-
,p,t,LUxuPxPPTy
x,xUt
UtTQU
(P(yy,x
p,-(P
TT,t(x,PPp,y,UPP1x
P-,QTyTUT-Ty
y,TUPU
t(t,LTPUPTxPU
PxPtTt
qTtTuPytUx
,TxPx
1,xy,,1t,L
L,tMP-T1PTP
PPp,P(PQxPP
p1x-P,x
PL,LQ
,1P0yt
TytyT
Tt,L,tPL
,tx,-tPx
xPptTyT
UxPyt
PTPPqt,(
TuTU,
,(x-xPTPT
TPTy0tP$1t,PTt
xUtT-txU
(x,t(xPPxpPPpTyt0QTu
xtTtxP
,pT1x
qTtp,
$PuPLxU,TP
(P-t1,T
x,(t,x1
PLPLU
P-xP(,T,
(Pxt,P(P
u(t(t(xUtt
xxUtU
yTTuU
TxUxtx
Tt(t(tPxTuPt(
xtPxutT
PxUttt
HTPTtT
tTtp,P,
qTQTu0y,M
PTttU
L1tUPP
4pTU,T
PxPLPQLP
Tt1t1xP
TtyPxu
TuTty-xP
ytTtP
,T,(,T,L,
,M,xQT0P
p,T,x,,
UTP,y,ytT0P
,uLtt(xT
,U,0y
1x-x-
PUPPL
0xPyx0
,x0t1pPpty
pyt(P,P(,
TTU,\
$PPUP
LPP(PP
,p-xPPxPP(PPxx,yP
y,y,qTU
0yPUT
UTtPM
]PTxxt
UtQxP
uTxPP,PT-$
xPLPt(
UTU,y1T
P1UPU
tP(yPU
,x0uT
p,yPTPQT
,P(P,
1t,ux
LTPt(
,,LPx
(t,pPyTPx
UUxPT
PuPpt,x
PLPPLP
t(t,p1x
TP1tUx,LP
P)t(x
,LP-p0t(
PL,P(PPLPytP
yTx$,
PU0y,LTQxQ
t(PTt(P
PxxPpU
t,PPx-t
Tt(,]
xtPqPyxx
x,xPp,
-pxPpt
Ptp0P,L
pPP(t
x1-TU
PxQp,
P(P1(xTPL
,yyPTt)
,tTt0x,
Qx,x1
xPU,T-
TtUtu
,xPxxPPLT
TtUxyP
PyxUtQ
PTPtyP
TtPpTtPPLTPPLx
,t(U]t(
L,t(t
xP0PL
,MtU,tP,L,-x,LP,P(xPP
0yTQ0
x,UTyxQ
(uTt,x0PPPL
TtTtU
tx,(TQLT
,pPL1
]tUtp
xtLt(t(PTPPy
(,t(P
(P1Ux,xyx0P,(xPL,
,tTPT,(t(t,xtLP
,xUPUP0y,TUx
,1P1,xP
Pp,t(xUt(
xPPMxP
]tLtP
PxtLP,p,x1P
LP,Tt(
t1P(x
,(P,(
PLxP(P,p,yxxPy
LPPPxtLxtUx
PPPxPP
PTPUxPUTxxP
Txt(P,(
xyPxTu(
UPtx-
PLP,PL
,p,,xT
p1t(P(,
L,P(t
yTPLx,
P(P0tMt
0x,yPp
P(,yx-x
0y,xU
uTtpPtx,x
PxPt1xTy0tTPTxTtU
UxtUtPy
TtyP(
}xPP,
uTxTP
PxPx0
P(xUx-x
P,t,x,P,L,p,t
t,x,p,TPTt(y
Px,p0PP
tx,)x
uxy,y
,y,x,xTtTtpxPP
TU,q,
yTtUx
xuPxP
tyTPPxxuP
,M,x-
,LTTTP,LTPPp,
PLP(,t
,PTQP
p,t)t
p0t0tTt
UP-TP
PLyttTtPt(y
tTtTyTxx
TxTPUT
x,PU0
0x1x,
x,TPTTPPLPx
T,(Pt,q,
P(tTUP-x,t
PPLtTty
LPPLPPL
LPt,yTt
P(tTt0u
Tx0t)
PpTytT
Tt,(x
P,P(t,
xUUPMPTyx,xP-,
LP,1L
x,,tp,xUx,LPTuUt(T
,LPU,,yxx
xTy0xQTUyTtU
TtTP]
-x,qTPU
ttx,pT,t1T
xPp1,1
,xQxP
LPpUxPx
tUTPPPx,L
tTP0P
PLPLT,P(,t-yPLTx0tU
t(PTPTy,xPyx,
uLxtTP
xt,UT
U,,yP
x,yTu
x,L0y
TtMtt(P0yx
tpPtTt
\t,L]
(t,tx
,UTPU
PUPy,y
,LTPxUP(
0P(,LP(x,,LPtx,t
PT,LTtT,PU,L,Q
Tu]t10t1H
1xyxUx
ttTPTtLxxtLt,yx
Ttx(tUtT
(UTuPxx
t0t,x,pxTu
xTPU,y,P,
,x,0P
PTQ0t(t(
TPTTLU
PLP,P)xxPt
TPxPTtpTy
TttPt,txU
,pTtxQ
,L,tT,x-T
QPM,PL
,pTtTtyPUPL,PPPL-PxQx,
TQ,LxPtU
5TTxTu
xPxTy
QLxTt,0tp
0PTtU
pP,,p1
LP,MP
,P(P,LPU
t0TUx-UP
(P(yUP(x
,)PTtTQ(-UTQ,
5xUP0xPT
,tTPTtT
TtPptt(
PqxPT,,P
L-tUTx,t
(,P,L,y
tyx,x
L,tT$y,yTPLT,pTtpP0,LTt(QPxP0
P(x,x,
PP,yP
QTx,yP
PT]tU
PxTtUxPpPtTt0t
,PQLUPP
-x,LPp,PxTUT
P,tPxUTUx
TTyPpT
t-yUtTt0
,xPLPxt
xPxPT
tQxt)
yxPMTPUxTt(P0t,
yt,p,txPPt
TUPPTPx
tLP,pxP(
TTPPTUx
,,p,L
(x,x,x,yx
pUxPxPP
xPxPttPt1y0PT
t(,,LP
P(P,xPtUt]t1tTP
P,P(-
,L,MPQLxT-$Uu
PQ0QL,
PUxPxxT
LtxTtxU
$T|y,pTTTP,yx,,T(tTtL
(xQPPx
Ty0y,t(
x,xT$]t
0u0u0t,
P1xQUTP
PtTpU
xtTyTtL
UxxPxt]
Tt-x,PxtLP,
tTPT1
QyPTtU
U0P,P(
UT1TTPLy
PL,px
UUTyPP
xt0,LTu
P,M,x,yT,x
TtqxUx
yxx,LttTy
x,x,pTxPt1
TPpTt,
,P(,Q,P
TT,yTQxUyPTTxy
1TxTPT|0t0
PTT-Tt,x0t(x,TP
U,P1x\
PPTux,pPPT
UQTP(P-
1xU,U
UxPP-UP
PyTu0UT
TyU0u
xtTtP
,Q0t,x,T
TyTPUP(P
xyPTtTPP
PyPt-
TPUxUx1
xUxux
PP,MTt0tLP,
,L0U,T
,1T,(,
,0-0,UP]P]p]
]yPxTt,t)xTTPuTPTt0
,x1t1
-PTt1t
TPLP-
x,PpPTP(
P0Py,
}p,u]Q(
QxTt,x,x,tTTU
,pPLTPP
xPLUx
,0PPUPt
1PPxQ
1PUP1T0-x
t]xxU
TxPy,
xtxPpPPLt,
,L,t(
xPxx,
yQ(x,p,x,L,x
p,Mxt0PU
tTyTx
0PUxy0
xUty,$y0
(yxQTUx-xu
xPPUxT
TtUtUxy
0t,x,PMTPL,t
,L,,L
L0PUT,0PMPU,,L-xPL1
P(PPUx
UxTx,U,QT1
0xPx,xPpTttpt]
PptxP
0t,(x-xtxP(PPPL
UP,Mt
,,,xQ
-t(1,
LPT,p
x,ytT
xPyP1
TtPxTtT
,xTtU
YtTtTt(yu,LPxPxPxt(tPL
,xx,(U
,(P,P(Px,
t,yTTP
,px,-UTyT
xTtUxU0
Py0txUxPpUtxU
pTxtTux
0yTPPT,LTxPUPy
p,t(,xt
(x,0t0
P,L,)
x,UT1PUP
t(PQT1y,PMT1
P1tUx
0u,y,xU
Tx,yTu
tTtPxUty
yxxtT
tUxuTtxTtU
QTxtUP0t
,pPxtL
UP,qtL,
$,L,(P
,y0t0
0-TU,
xPtTtTu
Pyt]yx
xQxtUxxPy
,yxPMTP,
PPTP,x,t,xUPP
P0,x,
P1xTPLT
Tyxt,
TtyxxxTty
xPLPL0ty,Lx,PLtPTy
1P0,TUx,
QUPTu0Q,LTt
tyTyxTu
Px,TPx,
L-xPTUt(,xxT
p,xPTPL
u0xt1,
t0xTtTx-x
U,-LTP
xPtxUtyTy
ttTtxxxTy
PytPyTPT
Pt1P0ytPLT,
,L,,p,p,-p-p,x-
,P,L,PPLtp
-,M,)P,L
p,xtT,
LTtTy,
0y,yT
PU,xQT
tTtLT
xUxyTP
tLttxTUPUPPPx,LP,T,L
yTtUt
TQTxPP(PP
x,t(P
LUTuT
xyyUy,yT}x
x,P1x
PyTU\x
tTxuTy
Tt0tUTPTPTPLTUPp,px
,TTPM
P,p,,p,P(t
P,(,x,t(P,L
(P,P1xt
Ty0QPy
u0-UT
T1PUxPyx
PxtPx
0y,)TU
,PMPTyxPPLPTtx,(x,t(
,x,PT,(P
,,(T,p,L,
(T,,L,,0t
,LTU,Ty
xPyxT
yxxPL
TyTt1tU
xTtp0xPLTuxPTPPt(t(,
LTTQ,(P0PL
xt,,T,,
(P(PP,L
t(t0P
P-yPUTQxQ,y
0QxUP
,pTtUtxPxPx
UPxxUt
xPp0yPx,pTPTQ,y
x0P0t
L,uTQL,L,,L,
P(PPxt,(tPtpx,
P,p0PP
PPUxTt(x
xty,xuTy
UPTtx
pTt(t(t0PLt(PTP,L,t(
,y,PTP
,xxPT,x,
-t(yTxtTxTtTQTQLP,p0t
Pp0t-
(xPtU
tUxt0
PyTtU
UxUPxUP
Uu0t1
Px1tTtPPUPPt(PMt,x0PP
-PLPL
Tx,P,(P
,p-PU,p
U,0u0t)yTxPTPTPyTQPpx-L
PxU,MTtPPUyT
xT,x,
xTxUx
,xPxy
t(tUux0xt)xUPTP(ttp,
y,P(TP
t,(P(
P0tTPL-,t0uTuu
PLQPUPpPQPytPtU
PytUx
txTyT
TtLTPPpPxPp,0tTt(xPx,
,TxP0
t,P(P
Ty,t(0t0t
TxTxUP,yTt
xyPxTy
,y,upUuU1y
x1,U0
,xPpxyP
uT,pxUtUTQTQ
,pTQPL
uTP(PPT
t0P,P(,
,L,,(x,(
PU,x1,L,t
xUxPy
,x,xTt
HTP1txPx,p
0u,UU
L,,(PT
x0-x,x
1TxPP0ty,T,,Tt(t,
-tUty
tTT,(TyPQ0QT-
yTQTP,
-p,yPp
tTPUxTtUt1p
xPt,,
P,PUxy,
tL,(x
T,1P0P
x(0Q,L
,xTTP
PTyPL
Pt1x\
t,t(x-xQPTxtp
xTPUx
p,t(,(,,x
L,tTP
PTP,x,xt(PTu,PLx
,y0ux
,p0tPx-x$
,t,p1
,xUxU
p,1t,)t0p
U,xUP
xUtUP
uytxL
TQTt)P,y,
Tt(xPpT1xt0
t(t,,pP
,yUxu
txUxP
(Q(xtLtT
xt]yQ0u
TtLP0
,tMt1tLttLtPq
-PPUT
P,pTP
,TUPPLP
,LPLTxP-LTP(
P(t,p
t,M,T1P
UP,L,Q0P0P,MPP
,xPxt
TtTPPQ(Px,(tPxyPTTxU
PPx-x,
t,p,t,(T
x,y0y
x1x,xPyx
Ut0t0yx
yUy0,U
TxtTt0xtx
PTP(QTtt-t
,pt,y
P,L0Q
QTtPp
y\t]L
TtTtq
t,t(PQ
,)PTy
x,xu(xx,LxQTPxtTyTP(UTP
TTTyP
,L,P(t(
0t1T0
t,L,L,Qx,
x,yTy
PxPpT
0xTuPx-p,
P(t0t(Pt
PxPL$
UPTP0
,UTPx
PtT1TQT
xTtPP
xTtUtTx,tQtLxPxQxxtyttLx
PTPQPx,TTuL,-P
,$,,L,
TUPUP
,LPT,
Tyxyyx
yTyTxu
0xytPMt
TytTQPM
,xPL0
PQ(,x-
,L0,LUx,
TxuTU
UtUxU
TxTyx
Ttxt]
PyPP,x
Txt(y]P
L,P(P(,
P,(PPL
t,xTP,L
y,t1,PTT-p,QPxu,
TtUTy
yTP(T
tqTP-txQxxTu
xTtxTytTt0Q\
TxTt)xPx,L,x,y
PPL-T,M0,P
PyTtx
tTtTx
Ut1t(tTtU
UUtbPLx
,t1xtTPxTPUP
,P,p,P,L,PTP(TP
PUPyTt
]xtTtL0PPP(
x,p0,p
(P(-,y,x1t,x,x,P(x
-tT,T
yTy0P
Py,TTxTx-
PxPyTtpU
uTtyTx
-xyTyt
,t0PPL
,P-UP$
(T1,UP
P(UTt
PL,T,(tpx
1x1x-
tx1t1
tPyPyxPLU
(UtMx-xtP(x0,
xtTHxP
L,txTP,P,
t,T0PT,,
T1P)0
PuT-x
P(yT,]yxT
TP-Tt
x-x$UUPT]x
P)x0xPx0y,T-LU,LP
TPTTP
t01T,
xPy,y]y
xPtxPxP
0tTxUx
(PLPT
L,p,P
L,P(P
1P(-x
1,L,1x
t0t0ttxT
yPUT-TQ
,xTxt0yTx
xtxu0
0t]P]P
\Q0,tTxPT,L
P(,PT
,Lt1PTPM,
q,pTPP(QP
-x,x1PU
0-x1y
uxPpPt(t
,yyTy
x,tUx-x1
1xTyTT
P(P(t,p,P,L-,
,,LU,p
(P,T,p
LTt(t,t
P0tPxx,
x-t)xP1TTP,-UT
Px0,y
t(,tMxP$U
,PLt,tLTP,(y,L,
tt1tt(t(PTPpt
,pTP,tLPL,(x,t
P0t,T,LT,0t
Lx,,Lt,PTPy,tp
TUQ0t
UxPt,x
t,LP,PPtLtt(xPtt(QPLPP,LPPt)
UtTt,tLt,
TyTxPt
TtTuTxtP
,pPPPLx,p,uT
TyTtU
TPpTtTtLtPLPtTtp,P,pT
P,p0PT
u(P,p
pPUPxxTt0
(yx,y
tQ0TQy
,,,t,,t,$P
PxPtxQtQx-t
t9p1PxtLT
,Tp0tPtx,p
xTx,PLtx,txPLTP(
tLxPPPT,L,p,L,-L
0,yTPPLP
L,xPMt
p0,ytxPPp
xUxxx
ttpTtPx
TtTyx
xPxxxT,y
,p,pP
UtPt(tT
QLxtLtL,
TTtTT,LPT
TQ0,t
uTPxPLT
,Qx,y0P,
,UTUQ
TtTtU
0,pPx
,PTx,
PpPp,t,P
Ptp,p,tt
tp,,LTP
(t(Ux
TPLPT
UtPxu
xxQy,
p1y,xQyPt
LtTtPuxT
xTxUy
0t1,L$
xPtxyT
P,px,-
PTPt(
-PUxUytUxU
PyUx,
UxTxPy
TPpPtxLxUPT
UPTtTT
xPTt,
tx,,(
LPUUPLP0
T1xTyPxxTtUx1
tUxQxyxxy
8Lyt]UTxUPPL
TuPtPptTtx
x,pQTt(xPU
,t,x,p
(,t(tUT,Ux
0P,LPxy
xPLPT,
-T1ux
PyPyxtU
QxuTyP
t,tTtU
p,(P(Q
PpP,TP
P9xtUTPxPxtPxPL
,LTPPpTTttTQ,yTyTyyUt
0t1x,u
UT,UP
t1P,x$
x,UxU
HP1PTPTt
TtLyTtUxUx
,x0ty,
t]L,p,
,x,P(t,q-LT,
TtPpPP
0Q0,y,yT
PLx]P
TU,,x
PUty,LxUtPUTT,yPxP
P(PTPTy,xyPTT,
txxPUx-T0xPU
TUxy,
L,PTy,
Tx,xP
pPpUttx0PMP,,P(Uxu
PTt0ttTPp0P(P0x
-x,(PPPLx,u
Yt)P0t
xT-Tt-
UxQ,tUT
PPTUUy
TtUxU
yPUtpTPTTt0P0
,xt(PLP
PLxPx,P(U
PLPpTU
(PT-L0tTt]
TPLPTP
U,PTxPxP
(uUyy
PQ(P1
UxtTtyTtUtLt,x,yxTPL-PLPT,
,xPtq
TT,(PLP(PTp-T1,xP)
UxyTP-
y,yTx
)xtTtUyx1t,yP
,xHPTPLPPPT-xPp-
t,x,(P]
xPP)tTQ0P(,
t,xM,0QTQT
PP,P0,yU
TtTy0PUP
0QTPT
1x-xyUxy
Tx1t1xU
PPTQx
,yT]P
t)PUx
TUPPLtTPTLPTP(TPPTPTTxTP,LP
QLPTP,L,,pT
Htx0t0PUt,y
0xP(P
P-0,p0t1t
,ytT,x-
0x,xPTQ,PPPUPMPUPUt
-LTPU
,Q,p0t
PUtLtPL0
t,,L,
,LPMU,
x0yTyT
T1y,u
UP0uTy
x,L,U
PPtUt,
UyTQTPT,x,1P0P(TPL
x,p,t(t(P
-p,Ty,L,t
L,UTxxx-xU0
U,UPU
QpTu0xUt0
0P(TTy,tL0Px,uLPPx
t(,,t,L
UtUP)P(,
(,TP-
1t(PQ
]t0x,y
Ty0xU
tx-x1
MxxPp0t,pUt(PLP,L,t(Px,,(xtTu(
,P(P,Lx,L,
PtP(x
,p,TT
0P(-,(P
(0xPtU
P1P)P]
,0t1uUx
PUxPxU
q\P(y1
Mx-pQ
xPxtt(t
tx,L,
p,TPTPP)x,LPxx,
t(xPT
TtLx,PL,,(x
p,1T1PUP-x
,x-0-0utTx
QLat1TtTtUu\
xUU1xUx
xTyxUxPxQtTPTQ
PUtTt
,t(tLPP(P,P,L,PU
TPxUP-T,
t0yyPxuTy\u
PLTPUP
xPxt0P(
1t0PPLUP
P(t,TQLPTPLyPPLP
Uxy1x
1T-PT
-tUpQ
,yTu0,yUPy
TP(t,(x,PLPLPt,x
,(P(PPLPP(
,T,1,,
x,,P(
PP(x-xxPQT
tUtUP01ty-
L,,yx,,Lt
LP0t(,x,(,
LP,LP(
u,P(T,P)P(y,
yUPTP
,x,x0x
x,pP0,TyP
-xt1PTt(,
,ytTPT
P,p0u,p
U-xUxt1t1PUPy
(y,t0
TtUty
(T1TQ
,u(t,p,L,x,(
Pp,(,y
T,LtPL,x,P
1,,L-
P(0tPLT,
,T-,y,,x,
Ux,1T
xUxPxt
xTt0P
,MPq8
-,t0t(P1t0t-TPTQ,PLPT
,PLP,x,pP
P,P(P
Lt-x,(TPPUt
(tQtTtLPx,LP
y,1xQL
1yUPUtP-,
Uyx-yt
xtUP,x,L,L
t(x,t
Pt(,t
PLPPT
P,Lt1
QTQtM,Pp
t,PTPTxPy0
TQxTt-
p-0-x1y0-
TyTxUUTt
,QTyT
1Tt(yTu0tTQT
tPL,P,(PLPL,P
,p,PL
L,T-P
,x,p,
p,xTtMT
xTy]Tx1
,LUP,P1
tTP(t(t,,LPU,p,P,
0P(x,
t,tx,x,xPMP,tTt0PT
yPUyyUx-x
\uTP,u
1,(xt0t,p0t(t,p,TP,LPL,
,pPP(t,0,x,L
,,LP(tU
1PLTty,
0P0t,(y,LT
t(x-tT
-,yTy,
PUPUx1
Px,-P)
Pt(x,t1t,y,P
L,t)P
PP(1x
LPLTP
t0,LUP
(yty,
LU,xQ,
,-xPL-pTP
TP,p,x
tx,Pp
t(x,p
QLP1P,L,xP
QPL,LP
Q,P(Pt
yTP,,x,x
)t,(PT
xUyTt
xtTtUt
TtTyP
x-x,P(PTPL
L,P,,p,t(,L,t,p,L,xU
,PTP(0t(t
LP,LUPPL,LPL
TuTuxxQxUt)
t]t:pUt
P,T,P(-t0tTPp0,L,,x,t(,L,,p
(P(Pt0t(PU,T,LTt
L,PP)PP
p,xPLPP,xPM,
y,P(yTP(,
TPUT-T
yTx,xu
tPqTy
,MT1P
t(,,L,,LP
L,L,P(tTP(PTt,(t
H,yPQ
y,t(x,xUTPt(P,yU
(tPxPxUt(P0
Lx,p,P
,QTt1xx,L
UP1xU
tTxuLy
xaP1t]p
(,TtL,,L,L,
pPP(tPLP,PLPLP,pT
$PU,LTt
0t(,txTt($
y,xTP,tTx,t0x
LTt,P,p-P
TUPMUT-0xQxyx
,ypTPt
QTttPuyPx
1xTtT
P1x0PL
PL,L,L
t(,t)P0PL,p
t(P,x
P)P(P,
UPyPU,PT
x,p,p,
1T1t(x,x-x-T-
LTPx1t(
yxUPPT
yUxTt
PxtLP(
xyPtyx
,x,p,t,L,,QP
L,p,P(P,)t
p,t(tTt(
P0,,P
TP-L,
(y,P,P,LPP,T,p,p
PL,tMxU,
PTQPTyPyTQ
,P1PU0
yPytU
yPpPP
t1Px,T
t,t)PPPTt(,P
PtPL,,p,,
L,P(PP(t$]
xPx,(t,x,y,LP,x,T-
yPuxPLPT
tyPQTxTt
xPyPUx
0T1,x
T,xtU
LTuPL
,,L-P(x
P(PLT,
(y,y,P1
T,pPP(t
LPTPxt(,-U
QxPLTyTPU
T,u0yT
t1xyT
1tTtx
x0QU$
PxTPyPx-tUyTPLP,p
t(t,PLtUP,(u
,t(PL
$,xTu
,L,xQPx,
0PLP1
-xt0y
TU1t1x
UxQxU
PLttT
P,y0x
)P,pTt(t(t(t
(PPp,t(x,LPPLP0,p
P(uP-
P,L,PTP(x,P
P,PxPu
PTt0PL
T0tUtxQ
P(1tUPUT
,yUtTUUUx
x$tLt,L,P,L
PtyPu
yTxtTyTt-
LUP,y
)x,q,tUP(ttPLP
TP,p,PLP(,t,pP,PLPL
,L,MP(PLP(QxxU
pTt(P
UpTtLT,tPy,Q
x(yt-
PTtTt
PxtUx
yPtP(
xUtuTt
,xyPLTtTPp0t
p,TPLPPx,LTPLt(-,PLP
0P,0PPxT
PP(PtPTP
PtT,t0P(t
-TPUTy
,HPx-
yTx,0xQ
t(tPPPxtLP,x-p,p
(PpPPLP(t,TP(PPP(x
LTt(tp,tLx,LT
xQP(tUQT
x1xUyxy
QTtu,p,
(yPy,xPP(PTPPP(
,L,tT-pPQxPLT
,,LPL,PLPPQx,(PMP,P(,T
(xTP0x,x-x,pT
UyTyU-
-x-yPxPy
,t(t0tLt,p,pTPPPLt
t,L,PLP
Lt,MT
-P,LPx,py,t(t1x(
,yyTt
-TyPtyxy,
1yTy,y
,,t,t,
,L,p,t,tHPLP,tPxx
,]PTt
1,)xUt(x,t,p,t,p0t(t(t,Lt-LPP
1PTP(tTUPQ
,TPyTPTtPP
TP,y,p,p,yyx,t(t
t,L,P(,(t
Px,L,
0TQ(P
Pup,t
,py,PTP(TPLPT
LUt0xU
-yTUxT
UP]L]
PTQp,txL
x1t,p
pPL,t0QTP
ptUP(
,Tx,1
,tTPP
tUtLP(t,p,
,pTt,x,
(tLttTT
,PUPLtPxPLP,P
LPP(PPPT
t,L,p
,U,(P(Q
,L0PT
P(,LPP
Ty,P0tPUU
tUP0t
x1,TTu
xy,tT,pPxt-
-Tt11
xyTUT
yxUxUxUxU
,ytUpUyU,y
PTt1t0tLPPTPp1P,(PPt0L,t,p,tTPPLPL
T,L0$,(
,pPL0t,p0PPL,
tPUTt0P
UxxUx
uytPx,P]
(PxPLTtt(tLP,p,xt(
L,tQLTP,L,PL
,1P),
,x(PL,,(PPTPTPx
xPP(P0,pTt(Px
PyTTxUxPPUxTy
Q(xt,p,x,P(TPPL,
xPp,LPPUx
TyUt0PTt
p,tPT
Lt,T(PL
tyPx0uTPTP,x,pP
yPyxt
U$]tU
,LtPPLx,Q(x,t(t
xPPPL,,
x,L,(,(t
TPTPLU,P(xPx,
x,x,p
PTtTPp,p,t)x,P,p,p
t,pTP,LuT
,,x1P
TPPUP
Q(0P,
TP(yPTPP
,x,t,x
tTxy,,
P.x0P
t(PLx,t,q,
TTPtp
,Px,pup
U,T,U,
xPTTPPLTy
UtUtTtTyy,
Py0tTy
tLPPpxyP
,LPU,,
x,t0t,xPxMTPP
1t$xP
yTtx,T
,p,p-
Ty,t(
T-PyTt(PP
LPPt0t(u
t(P,t(
,,x-LyP
P,x,P,LtT
yUtyT
UxUx\
1(y0,
(ttpPpx,y(PPL,L
,x,LtPTPTP,t0Hx,P
UPtx,t
L,t,pU
PUt(x,LUPUt(
,1tpPx
pT,xQ(Px,t(t-,
1t,,L,,
,L,P(
x,TPPL,L
P-TTP0
Ty1yT
x,(Pt,yt
P)t,(T,,PP(,
LT,L,L1y,
x,xPP(t,P(t,yxTx,U
PUx-x-(
y1xP,
tPp0,xPQ(t(
TQ,(t
L-,(,Q
,pUt)t
t(P(,QTUPP
,L-P--
Tt0uUx
P(PUx
PQLuT
Pyx1P
x-TyT
txPxQTP(P,L,LTPPPLPPL,t(xt
0tTu0t(tP(tPLTPU
T,L,LPLP
$1t0t
TxyTU-x
yxQP]
,pQp,(,(t
LPM,t(P(QPT
,(P,UPLQ
P0QT,ytUtytTxPPTPPL,xPP)x,
,x,-U0,L
(,x-Q
tTtLxQ
TtttTt)
,,ytPPxt
L,,y,(x,,pP)P(P(,LT
xt,(t,
UxuTtUP-pt,p,P
,,T0$0P
t(,P(P,L,
tP-pPx
L,P(,TTU
x,pxP
PL,0P,PL,,,
PPTP,xLyt(P0
pxPPTP
xUxUP,
x,,x,-
Tx,P,uTP(
TtxPxPy
yPPTT
uLxPtTQ
QtPP(PQL0P(tL
t(x,t0tUP
Tu(yTxPTP1tLUTQ,
p,L,xUP(t0P
p,y,tyx
Yy,1PUTy
Q0t,p,p,P(,
t,L,P(,PPLPy,P
t,L,0
Ut,yTQ0x,M
TUxUxy,y
TyP,,)
Ty0U0t
,pxu(QPu(PPqt,(,tUtMPPTQUPP(txP
TTyyt(
xPP,(P,,
T-,(PPP-yU
UUtyTy
t(PPTPLt),x,p
P0t(,P(t0Pp0t(,xtTt,)t
x,x,QTP0t
Px-YP
TxPTTyT
utUtMt]
tUPUPu
PUtxtLxt0PptL,t)0P,LPP(
PPp,,T,(P
PPU$U,
PPP(x,p,,yTQ,,U
P,Lx,
xtTxU
xyTtt
PQTPPxPPPPx1x
TU,y,x
LP,y,pPPp
,UPLTPP
T,(tP(
u,(y,,(P,y
x$,(U,
Pxt1tP-(
tPpytU
LP0tp
(,PPT(
L,,(t,pP
0,tTPPT
PP(,L,P,pP,1
xUT,L,x
tUt(,y,P
TP,tLQPLP
t(PTt,pP
p,(P,
,U,p0,t)0P(P0PPLTx
PLQtyTxP
,PPP(P
p,pP(PL,P(,,P(x-PP(
x-t1P
PPP(P,LPp
x,t(t
0P(,-t
UtTP0t1
1P1,(P
,LUt(tPxP
L,x,,
L,P(t(P(t,
,yPLPP
Q0-TP,1L0x,LPTP
P)PPy,(0t
P1x,M
TUT-x,,TU
Ut,xtp
1t1x]x-
PxtPUUP(
,PPx,
0PTx1$
,p,PTt,)
,LP,p
P)y]y
PUtyu
Ux,Q]
Pt]x]P
yPLTxt(
tLxPt,p,tp,t(,t(,LPp
P,PPPLu
,P(PL
,yxyTy
,PPPL0t
(t,pPL,P(,t(,P(tt
PTt0t
Pp,LPT
t,P)PUt-
t,L,,
,,LPT,
QL,U(y
TyTt-xy0T
tTyxy
xUTPy]
(x,(x,L,p,Q(,xPP(,tL,PLP(,L1$,
x,,LPP
pyTP,x,L
pxt(PLTP,(PLy0-x,P
UyPUy
,xUQ\x,
Q(tx-
,P0t0t(P,p,tL
L,t,p
PL,LPyt(T,
x-PTPL
,L,T-x,(
y,p,(
x-xT1y
-tUxU
-tUP(
TtTt,xt(QP(t
,L,t(
TPLP,x
(,y,P
(tUP1P(
T-PLx,
UTTy,11
1PUxU
,y\yTy
PLPTP,LP
,LPyPU,
(,(-0,P,t(P,x-T1t1t,L
U1|Ut
PL,P(P
)T,UP
-LUt1
Ux1tTQ
TQ0,(
yU1,tTUTy,yUT
TyPLUPPp,L,
,(P(PPL,p
x,PP(
,,,pTx
Tx,x-
0yTyTUTxPUP
UxtUtyT
y,y,TPL,,t
L,(P,
t,L,t
LTP,]
PUT,P(,
t(,P(,,0
x,P)x
t,x,x-
xQ,,p
,(yPtTy
U100y,
TxQ,U
,yT-PUTQx1t
,-Uty
xxUxu
t(P0t(tL
,(,PLP,T,
,M,(t0
,LPTP
Q0P0ux
T1xUy
xUxyTy0y
P1xU,M\P
,pPpTtT
t(,P,p,,p,,)
)T,-T(
Px,x,0P
(P,U,pP
0,u,-P
PT,,U
t(x-xT
yTQ0-TPxy
Py,ytyxT
xyTT]PUP
Pp0ux
QPpTQ1t
(t,p,L-L,PLPPLP
yx,xT
PL,p,p,P
(P,P,(
P,(P(
,P0,LP)P(
-PUx,x0
Ux0x-,y
T,xTPP
TyUxQxt
,yxUUT]x
PLyxTx-xUP]$,
PLTt)
PPH,Lt,L,
xPt(t,PL
UU0xP
P(PP1x,P
-,0t)
x1PyTtUUP
x,0ux
TP\tUxTU
1t(]1t1
t,q,y,tUt
qPUT,pP(
p1t(,T
,,PUxT
1,yUP0y
]xP0,T
xTxPy
0y$UP
TuTxyP
yTP,xPpPTt(P,(P-
L,x,L,p,(
,,L,,
Tx-xU
)xP,TQLy
M,-TT-
01y0T-1,0P-
x,UUP1t
PUxxP
PyPTx1tU
qTQUTQxt
1Tx11x
xPp,p,t
PP,PP
PLP,x,
-(xPP
t,M0P
Py1TP(P1PUTT
TUT1U0PTuxUx
-x,HPPUTUyt(t,pPP,p
t(t,L1x0yTt,qT
tTP,P)
(P,TP(
xx,xUy
PTp,x
0P1P,
xUTyT
TQ0UTy
t,xtLP
PyTPT
xPy,x-x-
Tt,p,T,L
PTP,L0
10t0P
,Q(T,
,x-L,x0P
yTy$110u
UT1,]
0y0y0QTP0
UxTxPM
t,xTt
yTUt0yx,(
TP,zPp,xx,,PPLPQUP-LTt
t(P(x
,M,t(P
(Q0y0u0
x-T0UTt
UxP$P1txPx
0xUPQxT
0y0y0,xUP
tLP,U
t,xH),U
T$x,(P0P,p0u(P,p,Q\LPP
,LTy,u
Px00P1
PpTt,xtU
yTTUt
1(y1P]L1t0P
,t(xy
tTpP,
Ttx,L,
]P,(yP
Ltx(t
TQLT1
0,p1x
1P1P(
,1,T5]
QTP,xU
PyTtP$,p
0x-x1T
xPLPH
Ut(t0t,,p,tLt
,p,t0t1PT
x,(,,1P
T,00x11,
TT|(P
P(x,y,
UtTUT1
,TUT10
t,p,P
tTP(P,0x,L,UTP,
tLPPP
}x$y0T
,x,qxP
Tt,-,xtTy
Ut,p,P(t
,pPt(t(
,t(t,M
(yTt(
p,PUxPU
,LPPQ
(t(t,P,,
0x1,(
L,p,t(t,tp,xPPUPPQL
y,L,x
PTP0PxP
P-(0P
TyT10yPPp
xUxP,
,(Q1yQ
y,xTPTxU
PP(,pPP,
t9HTP,-
,tTtxt
L,ptP
,pTtPp,p
\y,)P,
1$1P(
,ytPx-
TP1PPUy
yP0P,
1PTtQpy
P(UTt(
P,pPt
xPLPPPL,xP
t,tUPx
PyTtx,0
xTU]y0UUTy,U
yTPUy1y9y00QUT
,P,xTx
PTtUxPxPT
TTPU,
xUtPpP
,(t,x$PPt(t
,P,PPTPt(P(P,(t
P0UQTPUx,
y-PUxy
0UT1y1x,TT
TPUxx
Uxy,xQx
Tt-P(yUxP
L,tTtUtP
UP1x-t1y,
Tt(tL
t,LPLT
tPp0P
PQ(P(
tPLPx
xxTTTTP0U0,t0,P
yPUPyTU,U01,
1x-PT
,,u(T
pTtTtx
UP0xT
PPL,txPtt(t(PPPpPPp,Pt,ptPp
x,yPx
UTPT-10
QPU,)TPUy,
-,1,1y
PTxxx
t0xtt)tty,pUx
,t(xtLytT
,x,t(P,L,,PPp,P,(,T-,
L,PUx
,U,y1TT,
Tt,xyPT
0yUt,tL
PptTPtLx
TtTttTttTtT
tLxPy
Q(P(P
y0U-,T
0x0y110U
,xUyt,
Tt,TP,
pTtLt
Tu(PLPtP,TPt(t(t,P
Tx,P(x
),TQ(T
L1T-Tyy1y
0xx,yU
xUyTPTtTyT
,PPP(,x
,L0Tx
(t,UU
ttLtx
Pt,p,
xtxPxPL
Pp,pPtxtLtPLT
PTUt0PQ
0P10Q1
10P,L
x,t,pT
Ttp,P
,pt,p
tTtLtU
,t,PPL,,L0t($P,0t
(t1t,
-x1Tx-T
xtxUx1P1x
Ty\T-x,
U,P(x
,pTx]
xt(P,t,L,P
,P(,,
11xy0yUT0P0tTT0P
yT,U,T0u0
(,TPPPxT
Lup0t(,,,
TpTPUTP
,,L-P(P,
u,L0P,0,TPTT,
(Q0t1P
y0Q0u0yPy0yT
,PxTxTy
(xUtx
PL,1t0
$xPy(x
P,PL,xP0P,
P0y0x,,0
,1TP0
yxT,UU
0P1TyT0P1
P,PTtTx
xPu(txytU
UP-U,L,p,p
tPtLx
PtPpT
TtMtTtT
\U0,UTyyT
tLT,y
xTPTTPP,L
,,LPTPy
LtPPPxPtPx,P
Px$xtP
,(tPPPLTt(tPL
xy0Q0,
PLxTP0ty,
TP0t0
PyTx-p,xPL0P
PPLttp
,P(P,Lt(,P
PxPpT
xtTtLPPtx
xPtpTxP
xPt(tL
PPp,p,t
t(tx,t
P]t0uT
TU0,U
Ux1x,xPxPP
,UPTt,x,x,x,T,(
T,t(xx
,,PPPLPPLPLtP,PLP
tL,PH
tLt(P(P,P,pPP,L,L,p,p,p,ptTt(
(P,xt0t(xUxPtxxU
UxUx1P0y,L
TP(TTPTTxu0t0xPPUx,T0,P
0U,MUxT
L,tTx]LTt
t,t,xxxxPx
Ttt(x,
PpPL,tpPt
TU0TYT
0QTQT
xPT,p
,pPP,
PLPP(PPP(,PTtLtt
tPptPtLxPtx
,tPpxP
1,(,T
0P(P0
t(,P(HP(
L,(,LPLPLPptLt(tpPLPpPp
tLPLPLtLPPpPLt(t(t
,,pUx
Qx05P
,,P,,
0,PUPx
\1x1P1
,p,PTt
1y0y0x,
x,P-T
p614-3
ftsTitleOverride
Classical Literature (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Greek-style theater at Ephesus in Turkey. All large Greek theaters were open to the sky, the drama being acted out on a level circular space (the orchestra) while spectators looked on from a vast terraced auditorium.
Classical Literature (3 of 3)
The golden age of Rome
It was in the middle years of the 1st century BC that Latin really began to rival Greek as a vehicle for literary creativity. Both Lucretius (98-c. 55 BC) with his didactic poem On the Nature of Things and Catullus (c. 84-c. 54 BC) with his short poems of love and hate showed that the pressures of following Greek tradition could be a positive rather than a negative force. The backdrop to their poems was the death of the Roman Republic in war and civil strife, a demise that Rome's greatest orator Cicero (106-43 BC) tried to stop. When he failed, he returned to philosophy - although this did not stop Mark Antony demanding his head after Julius Caesar's murder in 44 BC.
The greatest period of Roman literature began, however, under the new emperor Augustus. Under the patronage of Augustus' minister Maecenas, Virgil (70-19 BC) wrote the exquisite Eclogues and Georgics and his national epic the Aeneid (29-19 BC), while the lyric poet Horace (65-8 BC) vied with Sappho and Alcaeus in his Odes and created new genres of colloquial poetry in his Satires and Epistles. At the same time two writers of elegiac love poetry - Tibullus (c. 55-19 BC) and Propertius (c. 50-after 16 BC) - celebrated their own erotic enslavement, rather than the new regime, in learned yet passionate poems.
Glory and decadence
Though writing under Augustus, Virgil and Horace in many ways represented the end of Republican poetry. The prolific Ovid (43 BC-AD 17) was the first real Imperial poet, and his clever burlesques of love elegy such as the Art of Love (c. 1 BC) show that the influence of Roman literature itself was now beginning to be felt as a burden and challenge. His great Metamorphoses (which recounts both Greek and Roman myths and legends) is both epic and anti-epic, a reply to Virgil but also the only way possible to continue the tradition.
As the empire became established, the past became more important. Already the Republican historian Sallust (86-35 BC) and the Augustan Livy (59 BC-AD 17) had used the history of Rome's past to make points about the present, but it was the cynical and sardonic Tacitus (c. AD 56-117) who brought this mode to perfection. Yet his style was a contemporary one, characterized by a pointed 'silver' Latin (in contrast to the Latin of the 'golden age'). 'Silver' Latin had been developed a generation earlier by writers such as the philosopher and dramatist Seneca (AD 4-65), whose plays of violent rhetoric exerted a potent influence on Shakespeare.
This creative tension between tradition and innovation was the main dynamic of the literature of the Empire. It revealed itself in a low-life comic novel, the Satyricon of Petronius (d. AD 65), in TheGolden Ass, a romance by Apuleius (active AD 155), in the biting and often obscene miniatures of the epigrammatist Martial (c. AD 40-104), and in the hard-hitting verse satire of Juvenal (?AD 60-?140). More straightforward imitation, especially of Virgil, was not lacking; but the greatest writers were able to infuse a new spirit. An example of this is to be found in the civil war epic of Lucan (AD 39-65); in this bitter work the traditional gods are replaced with blind Fortune and relentless Fate.
Latin Literature lasted even longer than Greek: late antiquity could provide in Claudian (4th-5th centuries AD) and Boethius (c. AD 476-524) poets to equal Ovid and at times even Virgil, and the vast Latin literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance cannot even be touched upon here. When Greek was rediscovered, the enthusiasm for the new wonders that discovery revealed led at first to an underestimation of Latin on grounds that it was derivative. But the same charge can be leveled at the whole of Western culture. The distinctive contribution of Latin was precisely to articulate that sense of 'coming after', and to suggest strategies for dealing with it - strategies that even today we cannot avoid as we try to come to terms with the Classical inheritance.
The Assemblies of al-Hariri, a collection of tales by the 11th-century Arab scholar Abu Muhammad al-Kasim al-Hariri, is one of the most popular works in Arabic. It relates - in a witty and refined style - the deceptions of a learned and eloquent confidence trickster. Shown here is a 13th-century illustration of one of the tales.
`(K(The Literature of Asia (1 of 2)
The diverse cultures of the Middle East, China and Japan have produced bodies of writing which, while relatively unknown in the wider world, nonetheless offer a richness and scope equal to that of any of the world's great literary traditions. Literature written in Arabic owes much of its inspiration to the emergence of Islam in the 7th century AD. Persia - conquered by the Arabs shortly afterwards - possessed a literature more varied in its forms and content than that written in classical Arabic, and was to enrich the Arabic literary tradition with new genres such as the epic poem.
China's literary heritage dates back 3000 years, and is particularly distinguished by its poetry, which was generally sung to musical accompaniment. Chinese literature exerted a major influence on that of Japan, which, despite its briefer history, boasts high achievement in poetry, drama and the novel.
Arabic literature
Prior to the life of the Prophet Muhammad the literary tradition of Arabia was oral and mainly poetic. The three principal forms of poetry were the qasida (ode), eulogy, and hija (satire). At this time the spoken word carried such weight that even a more powerful army might flee before the hija of the enemy poet.
The first Arabic book was the Qur'an (Koran), considered by Muslims to be the word of God. Dating from the 7th century AD, it has remained until today the standard of correct Arabic style. Under the early caliphs the Muslim armies carried the Qur'an and with it the Arabic language into regions previously ruled by the Byzantine and Persian Empires.
The most common early secular prose was adab or 'polite literature' - courtesy books that took their inspiration from the Near East and India. Although at first applying to a professional code of polite behavior, the term adab was soon used to describe literature in general.
In the early years of the Abbasid dynasty (AD 750-1258), poets turned away from the Bedouin traditions of the Arabs towards more classically Persian themes, often involving the praise of women and wine. One of the greatest of these poets was Abu Nuwas (c. AD 762-c. 813), whose verses broke new ground by sometimes concentrating entirely on the praise of wine. Later Abbasid poetry, however, was increasingly influenced by mysticism.
Some of the greatest Arabic writing is in the fields of history, biography and travel, but in terms of imaginative writing the 12th century onwards saw the emergence of popular prose epics extolling tribal and Islamic heroes, as well as Islamicized folk tales. The best known among the latter are found in the collection of stories entitled The Thousand and One Nights, which evolved in its present form under the Mamluk rulers (1250-1517) of Egypt. The narrative framework for the stories is provided by Scheherazade, who - married to a king in the habit of killing his wives the morning after their wedding night - cleverly saves her life by recounting a succession of diverting tales including 'Sindbad the Sailor' and 'Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves'.
In modern Arabic literature the novel and drama, both heavily influenced from the West, became the new medium of expression at the expense of poetry. Particularly notable is the work of the Egyptian novelist Najib Mahfuz (1911- ), who won the Nobel prize for literature in 1988. The Swedish Academy ranked his descriptions of Cairo alongside Dickens's London and Zola's Paris.
Persian literature
The Arab conquest of Persia (modern Iran) between AD 635 and 652 led to the conversion of most of its people to Islam. Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, quickly became the language both of government and religious instruction, and also the main language of literature, although Arabic poets of Persian origin, such as Abu Nuwas, used Arabic to revive Persian tradition.
Much surviving medieval Persian literature was written far from the centers of Arabic culture, under the patronage of rulers such as the Samanids (AD 819-1005). The Samanid era is considered an age of decorum and good taste. After the Samanids there evolved the Persian qasida and the masnavi (verse epic in rhyming couplets), of which the Shah-Name ('Book of Kings') of Firdausi (933-1031) is the great example. The Shah-Name, a 50 000-verse narration of the legendary history of Persia from the creation to the end of the Samanid era, is a national epic that has above all served to keep the Persian identity distinct from that of other Muslim peoples.
The period from the beginning of the Seljuks in 1038 until the Mongol invasion of 1220 was the most creative and productive phase in the history of Persian literature. It saw both the spread of Persian culture into India and Anatolia (modern Turkey) and the rise of the Sufi fraternities. One of the most famous of the Sufi poets is Omar Khayyam (?1048-?1122), whose Rubaiyat eulogized in four-line verses (ruba'is) women and wine as apparent symbols of mystical union with God. The Rubaiyat has become well known in the West through its translation by the Victorian poet Edward Fitzgerald (1809-83).
Some of the most famous classical poets, such as Rumi (d. 1273), Sa'di (d. 1294) and Hafiz (1319-89), wrote during the period following the ferocious Mongol invasion, although their output is considered as the fulfillment of the flourishing literary tradition born under the Seljuks. In the Gulistan and the Bustan, Sa'di used many stories to expound Sufi wisdom, while the Diwan of Hafiz contains erotic poems with mystical interpretations.
Western influence began to be felt in the 19th century, since when many writers have been concerned with social and political issues. Since the Islamic revolution of 1979 in Iran, literature concerned with martyrdom and pan-Islamic themes has become dominant.
Chinese literature
China's earliest writings are ritualistic inscriptions dating from the Shang dynasty (1480-1050 BC). The first of the five early Confucian classics was the Yijing (I Ching) or Book of Changes, a book of divination whose first part dates from early Zhou times (1122 BC-256 BC). The other four classics are the Book of Documents (c. 600 BC), the Book of Odes (also referred to as the Book of Songs), the Ritual Canons, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. Zhou tradition maintains that Kongfuzi (Confucius) himself edited the Annals. Commentaries on the Confucian classical texts were produced continuously from Han times, and by the Song dynasty the Confucian classics numbered 13, including several philosophical texts.
Early poetry, contained in the Book of Songs or Shijing, is anonymous and dates from 850 to 600 BC. The first identifiable poet was Qu Yuan (4th-3rd century BC), whose poetry - allegorical in form and influenced by shamanism - was collected in an anthology of local poets called Chuci or Songs of the South. The Shijing and the Chuci together established the two principal strains of poetic tradition for the following centuries. During the Han period (202 BC-AD 220) a poetic form (gushi or 'ancient verse') evolved which, along with the leshi of the Tang period, became one of the main verse styles of traditional Chinese literature. Contemporary with gushi verse were the ballads collected by the Han music bureau (the Yuefu). In the 3rd century AD poetry became more philosophical and intellectual, influenced by Daoism (Taoism).
The Tang dynasty (AD 618-907) was the golden age of Chinese poetry, producing two of China's greatest poets: Du Fu (Tu Fu; 712-770) and Li Bai (Li Po; 701-762). Much of Du Fu's verse looks back wistfully at the short period he spent at the imperial court and treats themes of social injustice and suffering caused by civil strife. The poetry of Li Bai, a Daoist, wine-lover and bohemian, reveals an ex citing, mercurial personality. Tang poetry is remarkable for the emergence of new forms of leshi ('regulated verse'), which laid down strict rules regarding tone and numbers of lines and syllables. A skill in this form of poetry became an indispensable social and bureaucratic pre requisite for aspiring gentlemen.
The poetry of the Song dynasty (960-1279) was dominated by the ci genre - a form with strict tonal patterns and rhyme schemes written in fixed numbers of lines and words - which had originally emerged in the Tang period. The Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) saw the emergence of the sanqu ('non-dramatic songs') - a new poetic melody with tonal patterns modeled on tunes drawn from folk music - which remained popular throughout the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties as well.
While a vast array of popular theatrical forms had existed from Song times on wards, it was the Yuan period that saw the full flowering of Chinese dramatic literature. A new type of play developed - typified by the love story The Western Chamber by Wang Shifu (c. 1250-?1337) - usually consisting of four acts and consisting of songs and dialogues in language approximating to that spoken at the time. Poetic dramas containing up to 40 scene changes and a number of different plots - the chuanqi ('tales of mystery') - became popular during the Ming period. It was not until the end of the 18th century that the popular Peking opera emerged as a distinctive theatrical form.
From the 12th century AD storytelling - a profession initially organized into guilds - became extremely popular. In time oral literature sometimes won more respect than written texts. Popular anecdotal literature, short stories and religious ballads developed after the Han period. The novel emerged in the 14th century with episodic accounts of heroic adventures such as The Water Margin, attributed to Luo Guan-zhong (active 14th century). During the 18th century the novel became more refined: The Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin (1715-63), for example, is a novel of manners charting the down fall of a great Chinese family.
Traditional themes and styles were not challenged until the early decades of the 20th century, and at first the strongest influence on fiction was from pre-revolutionary Russian writers and Ibsen. After the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, all the arts fell under centralized Communist control and Soviet-style socialist realism became the dominant approach in all forms of literature.
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* MEDIEVAL TALES
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
0U8TT10U0
xU0x0
00x10
T0T1TU
\y0x0
xP8xxT
x1TUTT
y0x]P
00U\x1
,],T,
U0xUTPP0x
0T,\x\P
\y9xUTTx0x
P]U\y0yU
TUT00x00x0
8xUTT1P
y0,U0yTU8y
y\y0x
P0x0x\T
1xx8xx,y0P
0T0T]
U,U0Tx
\P0PT
P,)U,LT
1T0x0
0,9xx9Tx1T
0P1x10T
]]PTT
PT,0y0
x00x,
0x0tx
0T00T
PTU0x
T,0x\
00yxTT]0Q0
L,T,L
T10TT
(x0y0UT,
,Ux0y0
T0TTUT
xTT\T
1T0T,
x8T,T
]xUPTU,
PT1T,\0
T0TTx]t
T,x\t1T0T0
1T,TTU
0PTx\y
0PUUTT001x
1T\xyT
UT]Tx0x,
pPPpP
pUt,L
UP]PL
,t0P(
x]x\x
y0P]x
x,0TUT
Ty0P\x
xPUTt
xTT\T1
]x0x0P
T0x\xxT
]U0fTx
TPTTPT1P0
T01xx
P,P1T
x0,U0
1T\x00\T
x,00x
,x0P1
,9LTUTT
TT\x\
P0x,U
8y00T1T,
01T,x
,Tb1x
0]TTU
,TP0tx
P10x]
0,]0P
xx1T,
HT0$0
\P4t0TT
L10x1
P]x0,PT
L\x0TU
0xT\U
,0x0T
\xT01
0P9xTP
0U\xT
(,xT]T1
t4T10
,T,U,
0y0]P
p616-2
ftsTitleOverride
The Literature of Asia (page 2)
ftsTitle
A performance of No theater in modern Japan. A stylized drama involving music, dancing and elaborate costumes, and taking its themes from religious stories and myth, No developed in the 15th century and remains highly popular today.
The Literature of Asia (2 of 2)
Japanese literature
Japanese literature has its origins in the Nara period (AD 710-94), when the first attempts were made to write Japanese with Chinese characters in the chronicles called the Kojiki ('Records of Ancient Matters') which appeared in 712, and the slightly later Nihongi ('Chronicles of Japan'; 720). The greatest literary accomplishment of the Nara period was the Manyoshu, a collection of 4496 poems of which 4173 are examples of the tanka - a short poem of 5 lines and 31 syllables giving a complete picture of an event or mood.
The best-known work of the Heian period (794-1185) was 'The Tale of Genji', written about 1000 by the woman writer Mura saki Shikibu (973-1014). 'The Tale of Genji' has had immense influence on later Japanese literature and is recognized as the greatest masterpiece of Japanese prose narrative and, possibly, the earliest true novel in world literature. Its language and style brought together the early traditions of tales and romances and provided the model for subsequent courtly novels until the 15th century. The middle Heian period saw a flowering of prose writing by women, notably the miscellany of stylish commentary and gossip on court life, The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon (966/7-1013).
The Kamakura period (1185-1335) produced the third great anthology of the Japanese poetry. The Shinkokinshu, compiled by six editors between 1201 and 1205, is considered by many to represent the apex of tanka composition.
The finest literary works of the 15th century are the No plays. Written in elaborate poetry, many reflected the Zen Buddhist goal of detachment. The ideals of the No plays are mystery and depth, and they invoke an invisible world through highly stylized speech and movement, using dance, mime, masks and minimal scenery. Most of the No plays still performed today date from the Muromachi period (1338-1513). The 16th and 17th centuries saw the development of bunraku (puppet plays) and kabuki (popular theater). Kabuki, which is usually based on heroic legends from Japanese history and has a more concentrated plot form than No drama, remains extremely popular today.
Throughout most of the Tokugawa period (1603-1867) Japan was closed to the outside world, encouraging an inward-looking literature. During this period the haiku developed as an important genre and began to replace the older classical form of the tanka. The haiku is a tiny poem of only 17 syllables arranged into three lines, which had first emerged in the early 16th century as a fragment of a longer poetic form called waka. Matsuo Basho (1644-94), whose verse reflects the quietness and loneliness he found in nature, was responsible for making the haiku into a literary form in its own right. Basho is also known for his popular travel book, The Narrow Road to the Deep North.
The 17th century also saw the appearance of many fine novels, notably The Life of an Amorous Man (1682) by Ihara Saikaku (1642-93), an erotic account of one man's sexual adventures from childhood to old age. Saikaku's novels, which depict very realistically the times in which he lived, reflect the increasing interest of writers of the shogunate period in the bourgeoisie.
The opening up of Japan to the West in the mid-19th century, and Japan's subsequent modernization, provoked conflict between the traditional writers and the modernists. Japan's first modern novel was The Drifting Cloud (1887-89) by Futabatei Shimei (1864-1909). It was influenced by Russian literature and written in colloquial Japanese.
Japan's best-known modern writer is the right-wing Mishima Yukio (1925-70). His novels, including The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (1956), and the tetralogy The Sea of Fertility (1965-70), demonstrate a preoccupation with homosexuality and death. Mishima called for a return to traditional military values before committing harakiri (ritual suicide) in 1970.
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* MEDIEVAL TALES
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
TxPxPpP
tpPpP
tPpPpP
HttHLHtpP
(Htp,(tH
xTtxtL
PptPltPpPl
tPptPptPpP
PLttp,Lt,t
PHPLH
PttTlP
PpPttLtP
ptPpP
tptPptPp
Ltt(Pltp,p
tLHtLtt
PLt$PL,
$H,PH,
tTtTx
tLxTt
pPxLtt(t,
lPpPtp,t(l
tLltpP
tLHtHPLP
,Ll,p
PtlttLtpPp
tpPtL
ttLtLtpP
tHtLPLlP(t
PPHtpPL
$,L,HH,
pxxPpPxPpP
ttLtt
Ltl,ltLtLt
tLPtpltLtP
tpPPpHPLPH
tHtLP
P$tHH,
pPptLt
ttPpPt
PpttpPtL
tptpPtpPpt
tpPpPL
t,lHt
tPptpP
pttpP
tpPtLtPplP
tPpPltt
,tHpHtp,t
HH,(P
PpPpPtP
tLtPpP
tPLPtptPpt
pttLtL
tLttp,lt
,LPt(l,PHP
t,LPHP$t
xtPtL
ttLtpT
LtPptL
tLlPptPp
ttLt,LttPp
,ptHPpPHP
LPpHt
t(l,H,
tLtPptPpPt
pPtpPP(lPp
tHt(H,
t($PH
tLtPpltL
PltPp
tpPtp
t(HPHPp
tLtPp,
,L$,H,H,H,
,pHtp,L,tL
PLtlPplPtp
lpPtpPtl
tLttLttpPt
PpPlPp
Htp,pPH
$tH,p,
H,L,,H,
(PH,PH,(
H,pl,pHPt
t(tPp
tpPttPp
PtptpPtLt
PtLtLtpPtL
tPtpH
tptPpP
,PLPpt
t(PH,
$tP(H,
PLP,(P
LtLtpPpPtH
PtpPtltpPp
tltPpltLtp
tLtpPt
LtHtpPL
,HP(t,
t$$t(
t(PPLP
HPpttp
ptLtP
LttpPpPt
PtpPt
LHPHt$P$
p,H,p,$tLH
t,H,H
pPtH,(tLtP
PPpPtL
tpH,ltpPH
PHPpP
LH$PLH,Ht(
tHtLltLt
,tpPLtH,t
pltpltpPp
tLlxT
ptPptPp
tpPptHl,p
,pt,H
H$,$$,$P(H
,(Ht(H,p,t
tPpt(
tpPpttPp
PptPpPtpPt
HPpPpP
tHPpHPp
H,pH,
P($H,
t,p,LPLt,p
tPlPlt,
TtLtLt
LtpPt
Ptptlttp
t(tPH
PLPH,H,
,L$H$tH,
PLPPLPtpPp
pPtPpPHtLt
ltptP
tPtLttLtLt
PpPtP
PH,Ht(H
,HPLH,L,
P$H,H
,L$,LH,p,p
PLPtp
tLtTtP
tLtLttLtl
tptPpPL
p,tHP(tHP
PH,p,,p$
t,HH,L$,$
H,Ht(t,pP
t(tLtP
pPtPpP
PtTtt
tLttp
HPplP
$,LHH,
,LH,H,H
PLtPp
t(tLt
tPttLttLtt
ttLtptpPt
t(PLH
t,l,p,P
(PHPLPLH
,$$,P(,H,
H,p,(H
,p,ptPp
tLxPt
TtLxtLx
tLtPpPtPp
PtptPlPtLt
,p,pH
,L$H$H
$tLPH,H
tHt,p
ltLttLttHt
pPtpP
tLttLtt(tH
,pHHt,p,(t
PH,LH,(
H$P,(,P$
HtLPPp,
tpPLPl
tLlPp
tlltt
PPtLttLttL
ttLt(tLPLt
PHt(t,
$t(HP
HPHHPHPH,t
PHt(tP
LPlPlTPl,
tpPpPtpPx
t,pPLHP
(P(,pP
LlPpPtlPp
LltLtLltLt
PpttL
tPpHx
P,p,HPH
t,p,t
HHP(t(HtL
tLtp,lt,p
TtptPpPt
pPtpPptP
PPp,L,
tp,H,H,
LHPLP
l(tHPp
tPplPptPpt
LPLtP
t1PLP
LtLtPLt,
tTttLt
PtpPx
PtpPtt
tPLPPL
tLHPP
tLttP
pPptPpltL
tTtPp
LPtLttL
t(l,LPP
,pPLtHPtp
,pPLPp,tPp
tLtl,p
PpPtp
HPptpHPxHt
tLlP(t,p
Pp,ttH
PpPptpttL
tTtPpPtpHP
tpPtpPtPpH
,plHPL
tLPLPHt
tptpPtPl
TtPpt
pltpP
pPpPptpPtL
tt(tP
pPtPLPPtpP
ttPtLtPpt,
pPtp,pt(tp
LttLttL
tLtpttL
l,ptLxH
tp,,lP
tltPpt
LttPp
xPtLttpPt
xtPttpPptt
pPtLtp
(tptPpPptL
ttLtt(lt
ptlPtp
xtPpPtL
PPpTxPpPtP
pPpPLPltL
Pp,tH,
t(tPx
PpttLtPptt
PttLl
PpTtt
t,tptLtpPt
tpPtP
$tLPH,H
HPpPtp
xP(ttLtp
PtpPtp
PpPtLt
HH,H,$H
PPL,P(tP
LPHtp,tP
LttTt
tLtPpPxtpt
PtLPt
PLtPp
tPptt
PpPTx
TttLttLttL
tPpPp,tLtP
l,ptH
t(tPpPp
pPpPpPtLx
ptPLttLt(t
t(tp,
,p,,p,t
tpPxPp
PxxPpPtt(
TtLxPPLtPt
LPLPLt
Ht$tP
pPpxPtpTtP
pPtPpPpPP
,ltpTt
tPtpPtpPpt
PLtPttpPp,
PLPLtH,
PHH,$H,(
ttltP
ptLl0
tPptT
tLxPptPL
tLHtH,L
PH,l,tLPL
tLtptlttpP
)tUUPt
LttLt
tLPLtPp,tp
,t,pP
ttTtLtP
t(tLtx
ptPpT
TyUyU
Pp,pPxtt(t
,tpPp,p,t
P(,pH,
P$H$P$t
$tL,lx,pPl
pPtpPHtP
Tt,pPt
LtxPpPttpP
$PH,H,
,LPpPt
Lt,pHPH
$tP(tPpPpP
HttltL
tHHPp
PpPPptt(tL
tPptPptPp,
t(tt(PPpPL
tpPtpt
lPltt
tLPlH
PLtPLPP(t(
PpPtLP$
tPtLPP(ttp
PL$t(,
,ptLtl
tPlPHPpPpP
PtLtPp
tTtLt
tpPt$
(tPpPpPPLP
PtH,LtL
pPPLtPL,Ht
PLtHlt
0x$P,H
PpTtP
LtPLt
Pp,Lt0tt
PtpPHHPL
tLPPptpt,
pPxltLtPpt
lPtPxP
$tLtt
ptPp,pP
PLtLPLPxPp
,PH,HPL
PLPHPplP
l,lHP
PLtptP
ttpPtL
tLt,pP
PptPtPp,
tpPTPp
p,tpPltPpl
,tLtpPtLtP
(t,px,
Pl,tLxt0tt
LPPp,tP
t(tPp
HPLPtp
PptpPpP
PL,tLtLtPP
TtxPtxPLl
,pPtLPPpPP
,pttLtpPtt
ltlPtL
pPtPptLHtx
,tTtxPt(tP
HPPpP
PtpPptPpl
,pPtt
t(tPxt
PxtxP
tPptL,,pPP
P(tPL
HPHtL$HP$t
PptLtP
PPpPtL
,xtTtPt
p,(P$
tLHtp,t(
PlxPlPLtHH
tp,LtL
PtLt,x,p
xPp,pTtHPL
PLHH,pH,lt
PltLtPptP
LtPtptPpP
xPtLPxt
xtl,LPxPx
t$HH,
HPHPH,L
PH$tLtp
tLtLtt
PpPpPtL
LtLt,pt,pP
tpPLPLTt0x
tPxtLtP
,H,p,tLHTH
P$t$tL
Pl,lHP
PLPPpP
PptPpl
tt,p,LPPtp
TtpPp,
tHt,lt(lP
tLtHt
tHltLl,p
TtxPpPtPtL
xPxtPp,tTt
ttPptL
ltLltLt(
yTxtx
,p0t(xt0xP
P(P($,
PtptPltplt
yUtUP
PPtLt(tL
PHPHPPL,p
HPpPPLtHtL
LtLtPpPpPx
lPpPtltPp
uTtTtpxtPL
TPPtTPt0t(
,pPPLP$
tlPLH,l
tLtt(t
PpPPLt0x
LxPyx
PpHtLPl
tLt(t
LtpPtPpPpt
ltPptLt
UtxPptPt
p,x,xPPUt
t(,lP
,pP$t
($t(ttp,t
tlPpPp
tltPpPpPlt
xyPxt(
PpPt(tPL
H,(H,HPH,p
HLtPtLt,Pl
PlPpPpt
UxtPtPxPL
Ppt,tL
HPLHP$t(tP
HPp,lt,p
Hl,plPtPpl
ttLtptPtL
xPtpT
PpxxPtxPx
xPpxP
tLltp
LtplttLl
tPlPplxPp
TxxPtTtp
PPLt0t,t
l,lPH
PLHPpHttLt
lPptLltLt
pPpPpt
tLtxPxt
ptHPltt
ptpPlt
tlPltLtP
lPpPp
lLPtLtpPtL
tpPlPpPpPt
LtpPtLtptt
tllxlt
LtlPp
Ltllt
tTl,$P
P,$Pt(H
$yyUxP
ltLltlt
PpllH
lPltT
tTtTxTP
$,tL$
LtPptPt
PPLP,
PlHH$
PtLttp
HPPLx,P
LP,t,P,P(t
PPtL$,
llPlP
LP|tP
PlttpPtT
tPplPpP
HL-LQ
$,t(P,L,P(
tlPpt
PttPt
lltllt
PpllPl
t1xzT
,,LtPtP
Ltllt
Ha\TTt
U$xPtxP
tll$t
tHPxtL
]tHxTt,$
PHPH,$,$
LxlPxl\
tlltP
ptT$\]
Ut$T]
PTPLt
lTtPlH
H\yPU
lHHPpl
HH,$$,H$$
0]01U0T0
$,H$P
]\x9x0
Pt(PtT
t,Pt,PP,
tPttpPtLPt
$1x1\9y
tlPxL
9]]T9
lPHly
xPH0t
0xUT0UT]
0]T9T0
]T1Tx9P
0-T-T
TU1T0\1
\x1T\
9x1U1Y
]0910\0]0U
]\U]0
U]TU\U\U18
9T9TU
0y\U]\1
T]1\0](x
UtHHPx
Ux]\TU
UxxtU
HHPLxxT
x-0]1]P
PLHtlP
xPt1Py
HH,H$
1\]\9
U\U8T
P(xPt
,T,H]
PpPlx$]
,$-PM
]xPpPl
\9x9\
1x9U,
UTx\y]UTx
1T1x1
]]T\1T9
txUxxPp
LtHTP
PlPL]
tpltPptPp
LtPpl
0]TT0
,pPttLtLtP
ll,lt
1]01-
l,T$t
0QLtl
1\]T]x
1x9T01TU
9tH$lP
(1U1Ty
\U901
\]\]\]
T]ltpl
-0T90\90
$PPLPl
$l,ll
9]]\]
\]\]01]
T0UT91TUy
$H$,P$,
$,$,t,x\
,$0,(t$
U0]\8
\tLtp,
T1xTU
llPl,
]T9U0U1y9T
$$PlP
$ltLl,lP
T1\UT
9T9T9]
]]1\]\
01T0U
lltLt
9U8U19
8]8]]
0T1T1
U1P1T
lP$$\
tLlPltt,
9]\U9
UPltt
H$Tl,
lPllH
T10T1x
0]09T
t$T,p
]\]]99
]T01T10T1
,T-0t
ltHPll
PTT1x
0\9T010yT
THttLll
10U1,
1P,xPLtP
U\U\]0]8x
9T1T01]0T8
]\]]00
U0U\T
T0y00U10
$PLlPLH
1\UT91
(tlt$P
]T]\98]U\0
P(lH,H
lPltlP
,llHx
109\U\
UltPP
tptpP
x98]8
T1T98
LtltPptpl
ptLtl$\
0]91]\U
\\19T9
10U0U
lPltpP
lltlPlP
1\9U0
T00-,
t$tltHPl
9T]1\1U8
PltLl
010,T
]\]0\
T0100U0
tltLt
llPllt
18T18U0
tltLlt
tH0t$
18U181U
LltlP
1T]T1U0TU0
P8T1T0U81
T1x\U0-
U818U8]1
]0\901
1T0T9U\
8U0]09
y10]T1
U0]18
U90U0
T91T1U0
tLltltl
PpttptPpP
0]TU8
\0U,,
ttLtpPltpl
tltll
\0T-9\1\
\]x90T
T01T08
tlltLt
lPltlPtLtl
tl,ll
1\8y90]
\T19Ux
9T10T1
-0U9T
tltHl,lP
xT]981
U0U0]\
9T10T19\
U8]11T1\
T9\U0U1
0U010
T1001,
PtllH
tHPHP
]T8U0
T09T10U
0P10U
90x1P
PH,HH$($
$P$PHH,l,p
tLtHlP
lHlHt
HPH,PLH
PH$HP$
t$,LH
y0T9P
H,$HHP
P$t$PPH
,tHH,HH$
PlPlH
,lHlP
tltlP
ltllPl
l$lHl,,$
$,L,,($,
Q(Q(,
x,TPP
lPllHPH
ltHlH
PllLt
0,T01
,-),1P-$
1x,,p
T,L0PT-
U0y,,
$ltlH$
LtpPl
y,U,U
P,QTU
1T-x-
,T1$,
Q0P0U
PL$PHl
tHPl$l
$x,p$
(P,(Pu(,Q0
(PUPM
(U0QM
P$lH,(
xPtLlH
P,L,(
x-L-T
Ptplt
PplPlPl
LP,(-
PH1U,,U,(
tPpPp
tltPpPltp
llPtp
,$0P,L
y,U,y
xP-,Q0UP
Ptltl
pltptPp
ttpPtP
,H,L,,p,(
UPQ,U
$-P(,
Hl,l$
HtPHltl
lPltlP
HH,Ht(xPp,
lPplPtpH
P1-T$U
P0Q),
H,lPl
LltHt
$$P(H$tpTt
LPlPlt
P(t(P
yTU,U
,P(1P
tltplt
P$$P,LHP
LP(,PTP
0u1--L,UPU
T]u(P
tplPlP
$tHP$
lltlP
pPP(U1x$U
P(0,L
$tP(H
ltlltltltp
t(,PPL,
,L-0Q
$H$$HH
lHHPl
Ptlltltl
ltlltl
tLlHllt
PlPpltltpl
(P(uT
PL,p,t(P(P
11x1t(
P-x1Tx
tltLl
pPltlt
lttlP
H,(,P(
(,P(t,LPTP
yPUPUPUUt
Ppltl
$$Ppl
tltllt
p,PPL,
u,p1x
PU,yUx
tpltlt
pllPlP
lPllP
ltlPplPl
H,L,P
p,,p,x,p,U
1TUU,H-1t
0$01y,
(U,UT-0QL
Pt$$l$
ltltllPl
tl,ltH
p,(P,0P
pUyTyPP
y,yUt
LtlHllP
t$PlH
PllH$0
ltPHP
lltll
lltLll
ltltl
PltLlPtlP
$,L,P
L,P(P,t(,p
H,HP(lH
lPl,lt
tHPllPlt
ltlHP
p,L,P
(t,(TPLt,t
01UPUx-$P
PUx-Tu
P1p0PUU
tlttl
t,pHP
tltlltt
tPpPtll$
(PPttl
tpPtllP
,L,x,yPT
1yyYt9yx
ltLlPl
$H$tt
H,HHP(PL
$P(P,L,P
,L,t(P,,LU
(P-L,
PH,lltlt
tPplt
ltlltlt
PlltlH
tltPplP
(P($,
t,(P,L
p,tLTP
,P(yT
xUPMP
1u0uT
ltLllt
l,$l,lH
l$tlPHPt
P$,lP
$P,lt
HH,$tl
PLPPTPP
y0QUQ
UQ0QT
HPlHll
lPllP
$UH,t($
HtPptP
,tpPlt
L,LPPL,L
LTQ0PUP1x$
L-,-P
ltltllHlH,
tlltlt
LH,$lt
tHPHlPtlP
,$HP,H
PH$HH
,L$$H
L,,t(t,LP
1PTy,t
PU-Tut
-L-x,
,tLHlPlH
,H,Ht(H$H
t0PPU,
PU,q,),
TPy1P
lltlt
ltLltLl
tpllt
llP$$
$$H,H,HH
,0P$,,pP(P
PL,P(t(x,1
P-UTy,$
lpllP
lttLtlt
tltltlPp
t$$,l
P,$PH,
PP0t,p
H$P$Ht
ltltl
,lltllt
PP,$,(P,
L,,L,(,p,t
-,p0P$
tlltllt$
lPH$l
lltltpP
lPpltllt
l,lPHltl
$$,$,
PLP,L,
,L,,tPx
tPltl
lH$ltlltl
,L,,L
llPlt
P,HHlP
(,P(,,
L,(P,
tltlt
lPlltP
Pltltll
t$t$H
P(,P(
P,P(,x,L,
-UTP0u0$
lPlltllt
,H$$HP$
ltllP
,H,H$$,$
(,LPP(t,LP
U]yYQU
,$,$$PH
tHll,
l$Pplt
tpPll
HHPllPl
PH$,H,
,($$H
1U,tH
HHPltH
llH$ltllP
tltlltl
ttlPtltltP
tlPltlP
$$,H$,
t$$t$H,$,
tllPp
ltPltll
tlPltl
$,$P$
lPtltP
$Hl,ltHP
ltLHtLl
LltlP
,p,$H
H,HPl
ltlPt
,$$PHP
Pp$$lP
$,t$tH$P$
tll,LHPl
tltltl
lHltL
xlH,LPl
tPHP$tHP
,$,H$H
ltHlt
ltltlPlt
Pltll
Pltltl
(lHPP
,H$,$,$,$$
,$H$H
tHltL
PlPllt
ltpPllPp
$H,tLtt
PptlP
$$P$,H,
ll,ll,
HH,HP
(HH,,HPH,H
HPLH,H
lHPPL
ltltl
HHtHH
HPx$H,$,H,
$,HH$$
H,HPH,,H,
$P$HH$
ltPpPl
l$HPH
tlltl
$P$$,
$,HP$,$,H$
H,$HPl
PllPHH
lPptltL
tLllPp
$H,lP
tltpt
PPlPpPt
HPl,H,$P
$H$H(
t$$H,
P$H$$Ht$$H
$$H$,$PH,$
,HHPl,H
t(l,p
lttpP
lltll
HH,t(
H$,H,
$,$,H$
tPpltHlHl
lPll$
tHl,l
$$tP,
H,$,HH$H
$PH,H$H,
$HHP$P$
tHlHPlH
tpPlttl
tlltl
$,($P,
tHtHH,H
H,HPH$H$
PH$PH,H
H,H,Ht$lt
ltlltPpl
H,HH,HH
,(H,$
,$H,H,$
P$H,H$$
$P,H,t
,H,HH
tlHl,
llHlt
tHPl,lt
lltll
llPltltL
tltpl
$$P($
,$P$HH$
TH$,l
$,H$H
H$$P$
$P$$HPH,HH
H,$$,L,P
H,pTl$
tlHlP
PlPlt
l,ltL
tlltl
LltlP
,$,H$P
t$$H$lt
,H,$PH$H$H
H,(P,p
yHH,$H
,P$,($$
H,$PH
HPltLlt
lHHl,
PltLltllP
ttLtlPlt
HHtlPpltLl
lH0l$
$,,(H,
$,p$H$,H,
P$$H$P
tH,P(
$H,H$,
P(H$,$H
lHl,tpHl$
tLlHllt
pPltL
tLtltL
lltlx
tllPl
PlltltHtt
tHlt(
l,l,HP,$
$tH,PL
H$PH$
$,Hl,
tHP$$
t(HH$,H
H,$P$,H,
H,L$,$$P
lPHP$PH]
HHP$,HP
tLltltlPlt
lltlt
lPltLl
ltlttL
PHtl,tLtlt
,HH,H
HPH$H
H,H$PH
$,LH$H$,$P
($,$$,HP$$
$$P$P(H
tl$Ht
lltLl
tl,ltpltl
ltltP
pPlPltLtP
ltPlH
Hl,tl
H$,P(l$
tH,$H,H$$,
H$,H,$P$$H
,$H,L
,H,ltL
ltlH$,
pllPpPp
HPHtL
tlPpl
tlt(lt
tltlltll
,HlPH
,$P$$,$t($
H$HH,$,$,H
,t(PlP
P$T$$
$tH,L$
ltlltl
HPltlPp
ltlltllt
tpltPplP
Pltll
$P(lH
llPpltL
H,$,tHH,tH
H,L$,$P$
P$,$$,$
t(H$$
LHH$,$P
H$P$,(
$PH$P$
$HPP(tPH
Ll,Hl
Plt$P
PL$tPpPl
tlltlt
lPlltltlPl
xlttLx
ltltLt
$,$PH,
,$$P$
tLltP
ltptll
tLHPp
tlltPlt
tltLllPlP
lPpltltL
pltplt
ltltl
lPtH$
Llltl
P,$P$
,$$,HtHH0
$H,H$
,$H$,L$,
$,$,L$$
HPH$P
Hl,tHHl,
tTt,H
llPltlt
PHPHtl
tHtPpPtp
PltPlPpHP
PplPpl
ltllP
HtltltpPt
Ltplt
HH,H$
tlPL$H
HH,$P(H
HH$,$
P,H$,($,L
H,PH,$H$$t
LtPpT
H,$P$P
$,HH,
tPpltl
tHllHlH
tHltlPplt
ltltPpPptl
ptltLt
ltHPlt
LtlPL
H,HP$
P(HH,HP
H$,H$$
P$$,H
,$,L$P($,H
H,$,$,H
,$H,H$
P$tt(t
PpttTy
HH,Htpt
$$HHP
PltLlP
pltLlltl
lPptt
tPptltLtL
tllPlPp
P,ltHlHtL
HPHH,
$,HHP
P$,$t
$,L$,L,
,H$,$$P$H
P$,$$,$
HtP$,$H,$P
ll,Htl
,ltpl
tlPPp
pltlt
l,HHPH,
,(H,H
,H$,p$,H,$
$H$,H
L,,L,$
$,L$,H
tlttT
,H,H,
HH,LHPP($
lPtlH
PpPtx
tllPlltLt
tplPltpl
tltpPl
PH$,$,
$$,$$
PH$,$
H$,H,$
PpxPp
$PH$$H,H
$P$,H$H
$,H$P
lltplttltH
tlttL
ttltL
LtPpPt
,HHPlP
PHH$P$,HHP
H,$$,
,$$P$P$,$P
$$,H,H,t(
$H$PL$
,Ht$HHxP
$tlHtH$H,
ltLlt
tLltp
L$P$,($
,$$,L
,$,PH
P,H,$,
$H$,H$
HH,l,L
HPH$PH,
H,LlPpPtlt
PH$$H
lPpPPltltH
LlPptl
PlPpt
lPH$$
,H,HP
$$H$,$$,$$
$$P$,
$$,$H$,
$H,PH
PH$,HH,H
tlltlltlP
tLltP
lPlPlt
pPtltLt
$,$,$,
P$$,LH$H,x
,$,(P
L$$,H
PH$H,LH,H
HHl,H
lPtLt
ltltLltlP
(ltLltlPtL
pPtlP
ttpPlltL
LtPpl
PpPPp
PH$H$P$
,$$,L
,$,p,H
$$,$$,($,
,$,HH,
,HH$H,HH,
HtHHtHHPPH
tHPpH
tpltlPll
Plltl
tltllPH
lltll
LlltP
ltltLlPt
plPpl
PtLtP
L$$,$,
,$,$,$$H$P
$H$P$,$
P$$,$$PH
,HH$H$
HPHtPLlPPl
$tHtt
tPptplPpPp
PpltltL
PtltlP
HPptPp
PtllP
LtlPtLt
PtLtpl
,H,$,$,(
H,$,$,H,
$,$,$$,
$$P,$,$H,
H,H,LH$,
H$t$H$
PH,HH
tlHll
PlttLlPp
Pll,lPtl
tLltL
ltPplt
tHPlPLP
P,pHH,
H,H,(
($,$$,$$
$$,$,$,H
HtlPH
PH$$PHH,PH
t,$t$
PHtHtl
tLltltL
lttl,p
Llt$$
PtHPpP
tLltpltpll
Ppt,pPp
PtpPpHl
,$$,L$,$,
P$$,$
($$P(H,$$P
,H,LH,$,
Ht(ltL
HPptL
PHltL
tlltLtllHP
lltPpll
pPplPt
tLtPpP
Ltptl
PplPltLlt
l,LHtH
H,$$P
,$,$$,
,H,$$
,H$P$PH$,H
,$P$,HPH,H
,p$t$H
tlPH,
HHPltHlH
ltLtl
PltLt
ptltL
HHlttpPl
tpPlPp
t(l,tLP
,$,$$P
,$,H,$,H$,
PH,$t
PPH,t
,pHtHP
l,lPL
tLHPp
tHPHH
tHPLH,
$,$H$$P$P$
$P$$,$H$
,HP$$,H$PH
PLH,$
Htt$,t$tLH
tH,tH
lltHPtH,H
tltll
,ltLl
pPpPplPpP
,p$t,
t(H$PH$
P$P$P,(P
,L$P$,H,$P
$,(H,$,$,(
$,P$,LH
$,H,$H
,HH,H,HtH
tHPLlH
,HPHl$
PlH$HH
tpttLll$T
HH$$H
HHPH,
t,pHtLt
PH,H,$H,$
$$P$$H,$$
H,$$P
H,HH,
$$PLHHt
,H,$t
lPplH
tpt,P
HPHPtltLll
HtLHHP
HH$$H$,PH
L,$,P
$$PHH
P$H,H$
HPH$Pp
H,HHtH
PHtltl
t(l,l,H
t(tH,
,$,pHt
Ltl$$Pl
ltltltL
P$tlPH
PHP$P
,LPL$
,LH,HH
HPt$lHPl,t
lHPHHPH
,HP$H
,t(ltHx
ltltlPttT
xHttL
$$PPx
,H,PHP
$,H,H,
(H,HH$P$H
($$PH$
$,$$,
$,$,$,(
P$HHP
P$t$,
l,lHPH
l,lH,lt
HPH,H
tLtpT
HH,H$H
,$P(P
$$P$H
$$,$$P$P$$
H,H,$
PLPH,
ltHtH
,l,lH
$,L$,
HPH$P
$P$H,($,$
t$,$$
,$$,$$PH
PHPHt
,H,$,
HPHPlPtl
Ppltlt
,,LH,
P(H,HH
H,H$,H,$,H
$,(H$
$H,$$
$,$,H
P$HPHHP
HH,H,H,
HH,(H
,lHHl,l
$l$Ht
tl,lH
,t$Ht
P$$Ht
tLltl
$,$$tH$PHH
HH,HH,H
P$$P$HH,
tHt(Hl,l
PHH,H
H$l,l
tHltL
PpllP
l,ltPpl
$,p,L
$$,tHt$
P$H,H$
H$,H$P(
l,l,p
HlHHl,
,t(HtHPHH
lPHlH
H,$,$
,$$,$
H,H,H,
PHH,H,
P$H$PHH0H
HlHHtH
PlPHt
HtPpPH
HHtH,
$$,HPH
HlH,$,$
($,P,lPH
,($$P
$P$HH
$PPlPH
t(lPP
lPl$$Px
PH,tLlt
P$l$llHl
$H$PHH,Ht(
HH,$H
H$$,$$
Hl,l,H
$,$H,H
P,HH,
P$HPH
$,H$H
PHPH$
$tHllP
,lH,lP
tH,lH
tl,Ll,lPH
LtlPlt
HPHPl
,($,$P
P$HPH
$,$$,
tH,p$tH
HP$HPP
,$,HH
t(Hl,
HPH,H
ltHHt$tlH
tHHP$
ttltPpltLl
$$,$$HH
$$,H,$$P
P$H,$
P$$P,
$l$PH,H
,H,P$$t
$,lPP
tHl,H
PHP$t
lttLt
H,$$PH,H,
$P(P$H,
P$,H,
H,Llt
,H$HHP
$$,L,lHHPL
,HHttH
HHlHP
,l,lt$lHP
tHPtHH
pPPl,Hl,ll
PHt(lP
t(l,l
,HP,$$H
$,PH$
$$,P$$
,H,(H$
,HHt$l,$
HPHHP
H,HH,
tH,tH
H,,HP$H,
pH,l,
l,lH,
PH$$,
H,($$
PH$t$
PL0$$,$P
$$,$H,H
,$$,H$,H
H,,H,
Ht,LH,
H,HH,H
$t$$,H
HHPP(H
HHt$tt(
HH$tl$l
,lHll,l
H,H,$PLHH,
H,L$,
$P($,$
PHHt,pHP
$,$$P
t,H,$
Pl$HP
$$,$H,
HPH$P
,H,$H$H
H$H,,
H,(H,H,
H,HP$
,H,PHHP
tH,HPL
H$,H$
l,HtH
l,lH,lP
$$,$,P
P$tH,
PL,lH,
HPL$,
PHP,LP$H,
L$P$H,
tHPHHt(
tPl,H$
$HH,$
,L$,H,H$H
tUH,PH,
H,$$,$P
tHtHH
H$$H,H,
PH,H,
HPHPP
P(,HHtH,
$HtLHH
(HH,$,
H,H,H$,L$$
$$,$HH
HPt(t
PHPLH$$
P($H,H,H
PLtPpH
,lP(l,
,L,H,HH$
$t$PlHH
$tPLHH
H,HP,H
t,lH$
,H,H,(
$,$HH
H$HH,
,HH,LPL
t,H,p$tt(
PH,LH
Plt,l
,ptHP
PlPHt
,pPLHP
H,P(HH$P
$,LHH
$,H$,
PH,H,
$$tHH
P$HHPHt
H,l$P
tHPHHt
HPHHP
H,$,H$HPHH
HPl,H
,LlHH
PH$,H
$$,H$,(
HH,$P
$$,HH
lH,L$
$PPp,HH,t
,p$H,P
,lHtH
HPHHPH
,H,P(
$,$PL$PH$P
Pl,PH,$,LH
(H,Ht,H,
,ltHH,L
,LH$$,
pH$,P(tLP
$tt$$Pp,
,HP$tH
PPH$HHPPHH
$$HPH,L
Ht($t
,H,HH
PH,$,
,$$,$,L,,$
H,$$,H,$
H$,$H,
HPHHt$PHPl
H,P$$
(PlHHPP
PlP$$
,H,HH,p
x,LH$,
tHPH,,
HP(P$
$P$HH,,
ttLPPp
tH,lt(H,
P$H$,
,l,lP
,HH$l,
t(PHH,P($
PH$,$,$,
$$,H,$$
P$t$H
,P$,H
,H,H$,$H
P(H,lHt
H,L,$t
,H$,p
HlHPlPHt
$$,H,lH
H,l,H
l,lH,t
l,HHP
HPL$$
$,($H$P$
,($,L$,,
tH,$,$HH
H,$,lH
P,HH,$,
H,L$tL
PH$tP
H$,H$t
l,tH,
,HtHP
H,(HH,L,
P$$H$,$,
HH$,$
P(H,H
$$P(HH
PH,LH,pH,
HPpPl
Ppl,HtHH,
t,(H,
t,l,HH,HH,
$PH,H
PH$H,PH$$,
$$,P$
,$,P$$P,$
lHtPL
$HH,HH,
H$,P$
PHH,$
P,lH,
tHPP(P,
PH$P$
tPlPH
,H,H,H$P
tH$,H
,tHPtHP
l,HH$t$
t$P$PH
P$t,H
,P$H,H,PHH
$P,HH,P(
p618-1
ftsTitleOverride
Medieval Epic and Romance (page 1)
ftsTitle
,5j5c
Dante Alighieri by Domenico di Michelino (1465). In his great poem, The Divine Comedy, Dante journeys through Hell, Purgatory and Heaven. The mountain behind Dante represents Purgatory, with groups of repentant sinners on its circular ledges and the Earthly Paradise at its summit.
@+(+Medieval Epic and Romance (1 of 1)
Epic and Romance are loose terms used to describe the narrative literature of medieval Western Europe, most of which was in the form of long poems about men who became mythical heroes in the culture of their races. In epic and romance, modern European literature first flowered in the national languages which replaced the old universal literary language, Latin. This literature retains its vividness and immediacy and continues to spawn new creations - either based on it or influenced by it - in all of the arts. All of the major medieval epics and romances can be read in modern English translation.
Generally speaking, the heroes of epics, such as the English Beowulf and the French Roland, are historical characters whose courage and honor, and almost superhuman deeds in the service of their overlords, provided a national ideal. Such epics - as in the ancient world - were dramatically chanted to harp accompaniment before audiences such as noble courts, tribal gatherings and groups of travelers. Accordingly, the epic is regarded as the loftiest kind of poetry. The heroes of romances, though presented as historical, are largely fictional characters such as King Arthur and the knights of his Round Table, whose warrior qualities are especially revealed in the service of love. Their stories often proceed by 'romantic' event, involving not only women, but also the supernatural and the magical. Epic tends to be rooted in a real society - the family, the tribe, the nation; while romance expresses a fanciful aristocratic way of life. Though both kinds of narrative may include material from primitive folklore - monsters, ghosts and so on - medieval feudal and Christian values permeate all but the earliest works.
Epics of the Teutonic North
The cultural life of pre-Christian Scandinavia and Germany is reflected in a collection of Icelandic poems known as the Elder (or Poetic) Edda (before AD 1000). Mostly in alliterative verse, in which three or four stressed syllables in a line begin with the same sound, they tell stories of Germanic heroes and mythological characters, and relate a history of the Norse gods from creation to apocalypse. They also contain an early form of the Nibelungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs; c. 1200), a German poem celebrating the warrior Siegfried, his treacherous murder and the revenge of his widow, Kriemhild.
The Sagas ('stories') of Iceland and Norway are powerful semi-historical fictions of feudal life, mostly about manslaughter and revenge, but also about love and magic. The best are the sagas of Njal and Grettir.
The Anglo-Saxons were also a Germanic people, and the old English (i.e. Anglo-Saxon) alliterative poem Beowulf (c. AD 800) is the epic masterpiece of the age. In honorable defense of his people, its hero first kills the monster Grendel, who comes to devour his sleeping warriors, and then the monster's mother, who comes the next night to avenge her son. When old, Beowulf also kills a fire-breathing dragon while in his own death-throes. The Christian values found in Beowulf are strongly developed in Old English literature generally. Biblical epics, such as the poetic versions of the Books of Genesis and Exodus, also survive from this period.
Epics of France and Spain
The best-known heroes of early France and Spain were both real knights whose deeds were celebrated in magnificent epic poems. Roland was killed leading a rearguard action - the Battle of Roncevaux - in the Pyrenees in AD 778, and El Cid died in 1099. La Chanson de Roland ('The Song of Roland') is one of some eighty French epics about the knights of Charlemagne (AD 742-814) and other kings. They are known as chansons de geste ('songs of deeds'), the values of which are Christian and chivalric. It is a well-known tradition that William the Conqueror's minstrel, Taillefer, sang an early version of the Song of Roland at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The version we have may have been composed in England.
The Poema del Cid emphasizes the hero's honor as he successfully strives to prove his loyalty to his king and to obtain justice for the dishonor done to his daughters. Like the Song of Roland, the poem generates its fervor and its sense of honor from the hero's exploits against Muslim invaders from the south. The poetic form of the two poems is similar, with verses made up of irregular numbers of lines rhyming by vowel sound only (assonance).
The world of Romance
The French word roman, which now means 'novel', in the Middle Ages described verse and prose tales about three main kinds of subject; Arthurian, Carolingian (that is, about Charlemagne and his court) and Classical (mostly concerning the Fall of Troy and Alexander the Great).
Romances expressed the spirit of Courtly Love, a semi-religious philosophy of love between man and woman in which the woman is placed on an exalted pedestal, and the man ennobles himself by adoring and serving her. It developed first among Provencal lyric poets, the troubadors, in the 11th century, and spread to France, Germany and, less strongly, to England. It dominated the lyric in Italy and Spain as well as France, and the Minnesingers ('love singers') of Germany - some of whom were also epic poets - enriched their already fine love poetry with it. In La Vita Nuova ('the new life'), a collection of 31 love poems, Dante saw his beloved Beatrice as saving his soul.
The 13th-century Roman de la Rose ('The Romance of the Rose') is a dream allegory of courtly love in two parts. The first 4058 lines by Guillaume de Lorris (d. 1237) describe the Lover's attempt to make the Lady respond, and he gets as far as kissing her despite his opponents, who represent aspects of her character such as Shame, Danger and Fear. The remaining 17 722 lines, composed by Jean de Meun (?1250-?1305) forty years later, extend the discussion of love into debates, supporting stories and satire, until at last the Lover wins the Lady. The work profoundly influenced the poetry of Europe for the next two hundred years. Among the romances affected by it is Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, one of several long medieval works set in the period of the Trojan War, the subject of Homer's Iliad. Chaucer tells of the love affair, the role of Pandarus - Criseyde's uncle and guardian - in bringing the couple to bed, Criseyde's infidelity and Troilus's death in despair. Pandarus (from whose name we derive our word 'pander') is a debased example of the character of the Friend, who in the Roman de la Rose pleads the cause of the Lover.
Arthurian Romance
In real life Arthur may have been a Romano-British chieftain of the 5th century. His first appearance in literature was in early Welsh poetry and Latin histories of Britain written by Welsh monks. In 1155 the account of Arthur by Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. 1155) was expanded by the Jersey poet Wace (c. 1100-?1171), whose Norman-French poem was dedicated to Henry II's queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204), the famous patron of the arts and of courtly literature in particular. Wace's account was absorbed and enormously developed by the Frenchman Chrutien de Troyes (active 1170-90), whose five long poems in octosyllabic couplets represent the greatest achievement in Arthurian literature. Lancelot's adultery with Arthur's queen, Guinevere, and the resultant catastrophe in the treachery of Arthur's nephew Mordred and the end of the Round Table fellowship, figure in the slightly later French prose romances.
Chrutien's romances very soon inspired German versions, of which Tristan and Isolde (another adulterous love story; ?1210) by Gottfried von Strassburg (active 1210) and Parzival (?1212) by Wolfram von Eschenbach (?1170-?1220) are the most distinguished. Tristan and Isolde deals in a heightened tragic way with the consequences of the administering of a magic love potion, and Parzival with the search by Arthur's knights for the Holy Grail, the miraculous bowl - used, according to legend, by Jesus at the Last Supper - which will bring them spiritual happiness as well as earthly triumph.
In Britain and throughout Europe - from Sicily to Scandinavia - many minor Arthurian romances were written, some in ballad form. The major achievement in Britain was Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c. 1390), whose hero defends the honor of the Round Table by entering into a fearful compact with a green giant. He chops off the giant's head, only to see its mouth remind him that he has agreed to stand a return blow in a year's time. He survives because he resists the Green Knight's wife's attempt to seduce him, so preserving the honor of Arthur's court. The manuscript of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight also contains the biblical epics Patience, on Jonah and the Whale, and Cleanness, on the Flood, Sodom and Gomorrah, and Belshazzar's Feast. All three poems are believed by many to be the work of the same author.
Like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the 14th-century Morte Arthure is an alliterative poem which in spirit looks back to heroic Norse times. It is a tragic epic, a battle poem of the same ferocity as the Song of Roland. It details Arthur's European conquests; when he is about to humble the Pope, news reaches him of Mordred's treachery and seduction of Guinevere. He returns to fight his last battle, in which he dies from a wound he receives in killing Mordred.
After the end of the period, the best-known English Arthurian romance was written in prose. This was the Morte D'Arthur ('The Death of Arthur') of Sir Thomas Malory (d. 1471), which collects and binds into unity all the major Arthurian legends. Its title refers strictly to the content of the last of its 21 books.
Italy and Dante
The spirit of courtly love was strong in medieval Italy. In his sonnets, Petrarch (1304-74) idealizes his beloved but unobtainable Laura. Both the spiritual substance and the form of the Petrarchan sonnet influenced French and English poets of the following two centuries. Among writers of longer poems, Giovanni Boccaccio wrote the Filostrato ('he who is struck by love') and the Teseida, on both of which Chaucer based romances.
But the towering figure of medieval Italy is Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), whose Divine Comedy is one of the greatest poems of Western civilization. It is written in terza rima - lines of 11 syllables arranged in rhyming groups of three - and consists of three parts: the Inferno, the Purgatorio and the Paradiso. The Divine Comedy is a Christian epic in which the poet journeys through Hell and Purgatory with the Latin poet Virgil, and reaches Paradise guided by his beloved Beatrice, who in her death has become the handmaiden of God. It is a poem of both present and future life - seen by the poet as it were through the eyes of God - and is full of Dante's passion and prodigious learning in philosophy, astronomy, natural science and history. It ends on a pinnacle of bliss, in which the poet's soul achieves salvation through his idealized love for Beatrice.
Geoffrey Chaucer, author of the Canterbury Tales, as portrayed in the Ellesmere manuscript. Chaucer includes himself amongst the group of pilgrims who tell stories to shorten the journey to Canterbury, and recounts two of the 24 tales.
Medieval Tales (1 of 2)
The chief glory of medieval European literature lies in its stories, which were composed in poetry or prose for reciting, or in the form of plays for acting. They covered the known world, both its past and its present. All human life, from peasant hardship to aristocratic privilege, and the rising world of modern commerce in between, was the province of story. In subject and technique, stories ranged from comic bawdiness to scholarly wit, from pure romance to pungent satire, from folk superstition to elevated Christian doctrine. Stories were the main source of popular and aristocratic entertainment and education. Since few people outside the Church and the nobility could read and write, the stories that have survived were written down and preserved within religious or noble communities.
The three most famous medieval collections of stories are the Thousand and One Nights, Boccaccio's Decameron and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The Thousand and One Nights - a collection of Indian, Persian and Arabic stories first made in the 10th century - became known in Europe only in the 17th century. But many of its stories circulated long before that, and the Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-75) incorporated several in his Decameron ('The Ten Days' Work'). This comprises a hundred tales supposedly told over a ten-day period by a group of young Florentine aristocrats who take a villa in the country to escape an outbreak of the plague in the city in 1348. While the Thousand and One Nights deals, in an oriental setting, with the fabulous and the romantic as well as with intrigue and sexual adventures, Boccaccio's stories are nearly all realistically set in his own Italian world, with sex and intrigue predominating.
The Canterbury Tales
Geoffrey Chaucer (?1343-1400) drew on the Decameron for certain of his Canterbury Tales - an unfinished collection of 24 stories extending to 17 000 lines of verse and prose. In the Canterbury Tales, 30 pilgrims - representing the most diverse trades and social classes - gather at an inn in Southwark and agree to engage in a storytelling contest as they ride to the shrine of St Thomas Beckett in Canterbury. The tales they tell are preceded by a prologue presenting vivid and humorous character sketches of the pilgrims, and are linked together by vigorous exchanges between them. Prologue, tales and 'links' combine to present a unified whole - a profound and satisfying portrayal of medieval England - from which Chaucer's genius for characterization and understanding of social relationships shines forth. The Canterbury Tales presents a highly varied collection of different types of story: courtly romance (in the classical Knight's Tale, a shortened version of Boccaccio's epic, the Teseida), allegorical tale, devotional tale, beast fable and racy fabliau.
The fabliau, a short verse tale usually in couplets with lines of eight syllables, originated in France in the 12th century. In England fabliaux written by Chaucer and others used material drawn from France, or from Boccaccio and his eastern and Mediterranean sources. They dealt with farcical situations of everyday life in which knockabout sex and satire of Church people were prominent. In Chaucer's Miller's Tale, for example, a dull-witted carpenter is cuckolded by his student lodger, who - in a riotous finale - is then branded on the bare behind. The Reeve's Tale that follows is an equally bawdy riposte to the Miller for recounting a tale of the duping of a carpenter, the Reeve's profession. Sex and marital fidelity are explored in a more sophisticated style in the Merchant's Tale, an account of an aging husband's relationship with a young wife.
Perhaps the most memorable example of Chaucer's delineation of character is contained in the 856-line prologue to the Wife of Bath's Tale. This account of how the teller gained the upper hand over each of her five husbands is so colorful and vital as to cause the courtly tale that follows to fall rather flat.
A number of the Canterbury Tales have religious themes, recounting miracles and the lives of saints, and three are actually sermons. The Pardoner's Tale contains an exemplum - a story illuminating the message of a sermon - warning against covetousness. Three young 'rioters', who have decided to seek out and kill Death, are told by an old man that they will find him at the foot of a tree. In attempting to cheat one another for possession of the gold they find there, they kill each other.
Besides the Pardoner's Tale, the Canterbury Tales include two exquisite tales of religious meaning. The Man of Law's Tale concerns Constance, daughter of a Christian emperor of Rome, and focuses on the heroine's trust in God, which endures through several attempts made to murder or rape her. The Clerk's Tale tells of the extreme conjugal obedience of 'patient Griselda', who is set a number of cruel tests by her husband.
Chaucer's interest in building a series of individual stories into a larger whole was shared, but less successfully realized, by his contemporary John Gower (?1330-1408). In Gower's Confessio Amantis ('The Lover's Confession') the poet encounters a priest of Venus, goddess of love, who recounts a series of example illustrating the seven deadly sins.
Alliterative religious poetry
Modern preference for Chaucer's secular tales and fabliaux tends to obscure the fact that religion was the chief subject of medieval literature. Even a hundred years later, of all the works printed by William Caxton, The Golden Legend - a manual of ecclesiastical lore containing stories of the lives of saints, sermons and other religious material - was the most popular.
The greatest medieval religious poetry was alliterative. Besides the two Bible epics attributed to the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Piers Plowman (c. 1360-80) by William Langland (c. 1330-c. 1386) is particularly noteworthy. Langland, who seems to have been a lay priest, worked on the poem for 20 years. In structure it is a dream vision of a type suggested originally by the Book of Revelation, the last book of the Bible. But Langland's allegorical vision is of the whole range of life in England, viewed by an observant religious man whose aim is to discover how a good Christian can save his soul. He satirizes vice, and shows the good way forward. The hero of the poem, Piers, is at first an ordinary English farmer, but gradually becomes a kind of Christ-figure.
In Pearl, a dream vision also thought to be the work of the 'Gawain poet', the poet is advised by the spirit of his young daughter not to feel immoderate grief at her death. The girl describes to her father her blissful state in paradise, and he wakes from his dream with his faith in God reaffirmed and strengthened. Pearl is brilliantly ornate, being both heavily rhymed and alliterative.
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
* EPICS AND ROMANCES
* RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
2
:Y::9
yV1%-^
1M1)u
:/^bW
-1q---
)y11-
^y2P)1--
1-y1Q-
VyUU--1
.-y1-)Q
1-yyU$
)y--,-Q
1-Q1M
-P--M-
Q(Q--
y1Q)---
UQ1--1-1
MQy1)Q,M
Q-,-1
yUu11-1Q-
-y1--)
1--M-
y1y-M-P
zyMuVU-1-%
RVUyz
M---,1
Uy1--
1y--U
-yQU-1--,Q
-1--M1
1y1UyUU
yy-zQU-M
-1QUP1y2
yUuyu1Uu)---
Q1y2y
1yUU11)
2Q2-z
yyy-UQ1Q1u)Q
y1yy-u1
y-QQ-Q
2Q--2y1QU1-
MUUT--
)z1-1z1Q
UQ(--
zz1)1-L
221Uz2y
z1u1Uy
yUVUV
yy-UQ(
VQ21Q(
1z1QU
]yUUy,yxU
P-y-Q
-yV)-yUQ-)Q--
MyVy1Q^Q1Q
zUyUQ
2QUQ)
UQ-u-
1M11Q1MU
z1-yU
)Q1q1UQ
1U1-U
1V)1z1U
Uz1N1Q1
1yZR1-1
z1uy1y1
%%$I%
y1u1Q-
-yVyy
1V1111u
-2VUU-11
2z1uU
11z-2,Q1
V1Q)y
$2y1zV
1UyVYUV
z-1y.
y1)y-
UVU-)
z1)P1%
1UzQY
zUQyy
VQ1U2
VQ1)P
M12-2M1z
2yQM-:
zU1y1
M-1.1U
zz1VUV-
VyU1Q1
UUyVz1u
-Q1VY1Q2
Uz1V1z
UyUQ1Uy
U2Q-2
z11UV
Q-z12U
mum-l
y1111
yyyyVQ
uUy1Q
yVM-.
H-$VV
u(Iu$
Uyz-y
1uy1Q
Uy1zUyz
y1yyQ
UyUu1
muLmu
1U)zy]yU
VU---
uVtZy1
I-mtN
UQ1zV1U
U-UyzU
2yUy1
U1yUy
)Q$-mPI
1,M%$
2yUy^
I%HQH%Hum
qIu$u%u
VU--M
QqlIl
QlImQl
Q%l-H%P%$
-R-y1V
z-yQm
uQp%Q
Q1y1]zVUy
IlQI1
Q1)Q(%-
^%$Qy
1zz1y1z1Q-
1y-(Q
MQU1z
-q$u%u
~UUy---P
U1)-Vz
-qQuL
U1Q1Q,
~zUyyQ
1U-11y1z1
P-M1),M
yQy-11Q.y1y
qItIuq
UyyUuy1
y2-UQ1
11Q2y-r1
VU1),)P)
1zyUy1y-1U
U-L-Q-
VuUuUy1
2z1-y2yU
MluIH-t%
UUy-yV
Q1V1y)
1-U-yVz1y-yRUyyz
yy2y-
-V1yU1
yuQM1yy
z1-1u
%uMHQ
1y21zyU1y-y1y
yVQ1uUu1
U11yQ(u%
y2y1My
)y-yz-11
uIu%-u
UUUQUy
IpQuqPu
UyMy-yUy-
-yUuU
IQp%Q
R-1y-yV
)U)yUu
My1Uy
y-y--Q
IQy1-u1
%1-Uy)
QL--1M
1UU-Q
Q)--U-1I
I-qQv$
QyQ-)
--%$,
HQL-Q$
-QUuy-
%--(UU
y1P)Q
M$-$Q-
-uUP3
)-uM-
M-$$1
-L%--
$m,IHQ
QQyUy1QU
,Mu-(
---1y-U
-QUyU
PQL%Q
y-yQUQ1Q1
H%I,M$-I$IQI
v%$ml,m
Rv%IHImQH-$$%$-IQH%lQH-$Q)$
m(uQm-H%tI
Q$%$_
H%$uI%lH
H-HIm
P)-H-I.U.
$uI$%I,m
QpI%P%H-mm,m
ulIt%
QlQI,
mt)m,IP%Q$-I
u(I-Q
Qlu$%
H%-$m-H%-m,
%P)$I
QlmQP)I,
lQ)$-q%
upQuq$u$-uH-H-lQ-Hm,m
p620-2
ftsTitleOverride
Medieval Tales (page 2)
ftsTitle
A 15th-century book illustration from Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron (1348), a collection of 100 tales told by a group of young aristocrats fleeing from the plague in Florence.
Medieval Tales (2 of 2)
Mystery plays
At religious festivals throughout medieval Europe, mystery plays were performed based on the Christian story from the Creation to the Last Judgement, and on the lives of saints. They were scripted by churchmen and performed by towns-people with staging as magnificent as that of noble tournaments and pageants. They were acted in or outside churches, often on stages built for the purpose, or on huge pageant carts that moved about the town to designated audience positions. In England, four cycles of plays survive, from York (48 plays), Chester (25), Wakefield (32) and 'N-Town' (so called because it is not known where they were performed). Except at 'N-Town', the plays were put on by craft guilds. (It is believed by some that the name 'mystery' derives from the French word mutier, meaning job or trade, though the word has always had the meaning 'religious truth'.) Thus at York the Crucifixion play was staged by the Pinners (nail-makers) and Painters, and at Chester the Noah play was staged by the Waterleaders and Drawers of Dee. Many mystery plays not belonging to the main cycles were also staged, particularly at York. Though the subject matter of mystery plays is serious, the treatment is often down-to-earth and amusing. In many versions of the Nativity story, for example, Herod appears as a splendid pantomime villain.
Morality plays
In the 15th century, dramatized sermons called moralities developed. Broadly, they show man's fight against sin, and the process by which he saves his soul. The best-known are The Castle of Perseverance (late 15th century) and Everyman (c. 1510). Later moralities were more political: both Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis by the Scottish poet Sir David Lindsay (c. 1486-1555) and Magnyfycence by John Skelton (?1460-1529; better known for his earthy colloquial verse) castigate vices in public life and offer good advice to rulers.
Allegories
Morality plays were allegories - metaphorical narratives in which the characters represented abstract qualities, such as the Seven Deadly Sins and their virtuous opposites. The medieval tradition of allegory developed from The Romance of the Rose, and was to continue through later centuries in such works as The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser (c. 1552-99) - a grand political and religious compliment to Elizabeth I - and the prose allegory The Pilgrim's Progress (1684) by the non-conformist John Bunyan (1628-88), a dream vision charting the pilgrim's path to the Celestial City.
Fables
In literature the term fable describes a short verse or prose tale with a moral, which approaches its subject through extraordinary or mythical events. Thus, some of the religious stories mentioned above could be called fables. The Middle Ages were particularly rich in beast fables, following a tradition established by Aesop, a probably legendary Greek of the 6th century BC. Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale retells the familiar fable of the Cock and the Fox in mock-heroic style: the vain and self-important Cock is persuaded by the Fox to display his prowess at crowing, and is thus caught off guard when the Fox seizes him, but nevertheless succeeds in getting away by flattering the Fox in turn. Chaucer presents the tale as a comic allegory on human behavior and the Church, though his insistence on the 'morality' of his tale is perhaps to be taken with a pinch of salt.
Reynard the Fox is the favorite hero - or villain - of medieval beast fable. Other fables include the 13th-century Owl and the Nightingale, a religious debate on marriage between the Owl, who represents the orthodox view of the Church, and the Nightingale, who represents the philosophy of courtly love.
The tradition of the fable continues through European literature until well after the Middle Ages; well-known examples include the Fables of the Frenchman Jean de La Fontaine (1621-95), the Fables of the English poet John Gay (1685-1732), and the modern political fable Animal Farm (1945), by George Orwell (1903-50), in which Napoleon, the chief pig, represents the Soviet dictator Stalin, while Boxer, the plodding carthorse, embodies the decent common man.
The heritage of medieval tales
Medieval tales have had a lasting and enriching influence on the world's literature and drama. They confirm the universal and eternal thirst for good stories, whether for reading or performance. In the drama, mystery and morality plays provided the basis for the interludes (short episodic plays like dramatic fables) of the 15th and 16th centuries, which rapidly expanded into the extraordinary dramatic achievements of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. The major mysteries and moralities are often revived today, and new works inspired by them have been composed, such as the opera Noye's Fludde, by Benjamin Britten.
William Shakespeare. Although some works were published individually, Shakespeare's plays were not collected together for publication during the playwright's lifetime. Thanks to the efforts of Shakespeare's fellow-actors John Heminges and Henry Condell, the majority of the plays appeared in collected form as the First Folio in 1623.
+|+Renaissance Theater (1 of 1)
The drama of the Renaissance is intelligible to us in ways that medieval literature never can be, because it springs from a historical moment when humanity finally elbows God aside to occupy the stage of its own consciousness. The drama of the Middle Ages is religious drama, reflecting Christian ritual; the drama of the 16th century is a secular theater of human activity. The stage no longer represents Heaven and Hell, but the world of history and the material present; the essence of the drama is no longer the salvation of the individual soul, but the fate of kingdoms, countries, families and races. The Renaissance historicized the drama as it secularized culture; drama, like history in Karl Marx's formulation, became 'nothing more nor less than the spectacle of man pursuing his aims'.
In Britain this break with the past is clear and sharply defined. Henry VIII's Reformation crushed the old religious drama, since it was recognized as the ritual of the Catholic Church. The new-style monarchy of the Tudors disarmed the old feudal aristocracy, realigned itself against Catholic Europe, and set about building a modern apparatus of government. The culture of this new nation-state, shaped by a newly-powerful ruling class, was royalist, imperialist and secular. As the economic revolution freed new social forces for entrepreneurial action, the profession of acting was transformed from a feudal service to an independent business concern. Formerly the clients of aristocratic patrons, actors in the later 16th century became small independent producers, selling their wares directly to an eager and growing market.
The new theaters
Most importantly, from the 1570s onwards actors had their own purpose-built theaters, the first to be constructed in Britain since Roman times. These open-air amphitheaters, such as the Rose, the Swan and the Globe, provided a large, bare, thrust stage around which the audience stood or sat in galleries lining the inner walls of the theater. The stages used no scenery or artificial lighting, and operated entirely without theatrical illusion. The buildings could hold audiences of several thousands, and the price of admission could be as low as a penny; they were popular theaters. The focus of attention in such a theater was on the actors - their bodies, faces, costumes and voices: English Renaissance drama is a drama of language and gesture rather than one of pictorial effect.
Spanish drama
This cultural pattern was not confined to Britain alone, however. Generally in Europe, theater remained split between refined courtly shows and popular entertainment. In Spain, however, a parallel historical development, occurring somewhat later than in England, produced a flowering of the professional theater that has been termed 'the golden age' of Spanish drama. Lope de Vega (1562-1635) wrote prolifically for popular audiences in urban theaters. His prodigious output - he claimed to have written 1500 plays, of which only 500 survive - includes dramas of intrigue and chivalry, dramas on biblical subjects, and dramas with involved plots taken from Spanish history. Lope's dramas made flexible use of the unities, and were to exercise a profound influence on 17th-century French drama.
The versatile genius of the Spanish theater was (Pedro) Calderon (de la Barca) (1600-81), who wrote popular plays, religious dramas and court spectacle. A master of allegory, Calderon built on the dramatic form and conventions established by Lope de Vega. His secular tragedy The Mayor of Zalamea (c. 1643) contrasts the nobility and the people and rejects the traditional assumptions of the aristocratic code of honor, showing honor to be the prerogative of all who display moral integrity, regardless of their social class.
The new drama
In England, the plays of Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) offered radical dramatic reworkings of traditional materials. Marlowe's The Tragical History of Dr Faustus (c. 1589) took up the theme of the battle between good and evil for the fate of the Christian soul: but instead of a simple warning against transgression, the play becomes an affirmation of the need for knowledge and freedom. In Tamburlaine the Great (1587-8) Marlowe expressed all the unappeased hunger of his age for experience and power. In Edward II (1592) Marlowe helped to establish the genre of the Elizabethan history play.
In contrast with Marlowe, whose dramas are relatively intellectual in character, other dramatists were producing plays in popular genres such as the revenge tragedy. Thomas Kyd (1558-94) in The Spanish Tragedy (1592) created out of the popular raw materials of violence and blood-revenge a complex plot suggestive of Shakespeare's later tragedy Hamlet.
Shakespeare
The remarkable dramatic achievement of the dramatist and poet William Shakespeare (1564-1616) should be assessed in the context of a flourishing and progressive cultural industry: in this sense it was not the work of one man alone.
Certainly no other dramatist had such success in so many different genres. In comedies such as Twelfth Night and As You Like It (both c. 1600), Shakespeare excelled in a particular type of romantic, festive drama, often with a Utopian setting, depicting the maturing of a romantic hero with the help of an assertive and powerful woman. No other dramatist attempted to construct a huge cycle of historical plays covering the whole of English history from 1399 to 1485, from the deposing of Richard II to the death of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth. In tragedy Shakespeare began with the materials of crude Senecan melodrama, and later, in plays such as Hamlet (c. 1600), King Lear (c. 1605), and Macbeth (c. 1606), wrote dramas which seem to chronicle the universal catastrophe of an age as well as the agonizing death of a hero. After these great tragedies, as theatrical fashion veered towards romantic tragicomedy, Shakespeare wrote some extraordinary and complex plays, notably The Tempest and The Winter's Tale (both 1611), which re-examine, within a framework of romance, the conventions of comedy, history and tragedy.
Although the plays of Shakespeare were written by a dramatist of genius, it must not be forgotten that they were the product of a collective form of cultural production - theater - which involved actors, businessmen and audience as well as writers; and of a vigorous theatrical culture in a dynamically developing new society.
Citizen comedy
Only one of Shakespeare's plays (The Merry Wives of Windsor; c. 1602) deals principally with bourgeois characters in a contemporary English setting. The plays of his friend Ben Jonson (1572-1637) are, by contrast, teeming with the middle- and working-class life of the London streets and are addressed directly to the follies and vices of contemporary society.
With a new mercantile class flourishing in early Jacobean England, Jonson directs a satirical offensive against those greedy for money and power. The style of Jonson's drama is derived from Classical comedy, but its subject matter is recognizably derived from contemporary London. Volpone (1605) is a comedy of deception set in a corrupt Venetian society where only the most ruthless and quick-witted survive. In satirical plays such as The Alchemist (1610) and the exuberant Bartholemew Fair (1614) Jonson presented and explored a wide range of contemporary manners. Jonson produced masques for the court from 1605 onwards.
Bartholemew Fair is an example of a type of drama known as 'Citizen Comedy'. Dealing with middle-class life in a bustling urban setting, Citizen Comedy was the staple of the various indoor 'Boy's Companies' (acting troupes consisting of the children of choir schools at St Paul's and the Chapel Royal), which, in the early years of the 17th century, briefly equaled in popularity the outdoor adult companies.
Jacobean tragedy
By the time James I succeeded Elizabeth I in 1603, the world of the Renaissance stage was beginning to narrow. The focal points of significant dramatic activity were no longer in the popular public theaters, but in the exclusive and expensive indoor ('private') venues such as the Blackfriars Theater, and in the royal court itself. In the Jacobean private theater there developed a new kind of tragedy which, in plots of sensational intrigue and artistically refined violence, portrayed the world - or at least the court - as hopelessly corrupt. Thomas Middleton (1580-1627) - in such plays as The Revenger's Tragedy (c. 1605), Women Beware Women (1621), and The Changeling (1622; with William Rowley) - presented the Renaissance court as a scene of cruel sexual exploitation and violent blood-revenge. In The White Devil (1612) and The Duchess of Malfi (1613-14), his contemporary John Webster (c. 1578 - c. 1632) elevated melodrama to tragedy by pitting a sinister and depraved world against female heroines, who display some measure of corrupt nobility.
Court theater
Meanwhile, the court of James I began to stage hugely expensive masques and shows, written by dramatists such as Ben Jonson and with ornate staging by artists such as Inigo Jones. The masque was a spectacular court entertainment involving music and dancing, in which masked performers enacted allegorical plots. Ben Jonson's Oberon (1601) provides an interesting contrast with Shakespeare's comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream (c. 1595): although both works use similar materials, the play is a celebration of imagination and popular energy, while the masque - which featured James's heir Prince Henry as a star performer - praises and celebrates royalty.
The theater companies, which had always been persecuted by the Puritan citizens who dominated London social and economic life, gradually crept closer to the monarchy for protection. Shakespeare's company was known during the Elizabethan period as the 'Lord Chamberlain's Men', but after Elizabeth's death became the 'King's Men', personal servants to James I himself. When Shakespeare retired from the theater in 1613, he left a space to be filled by lesser dramatists and courtly amateurs. His successors as principal writers for the King's Men were Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and his collaborator John Fletcher (1579-1625), whose characteristic emphasis on romantic tragedy and tragicomedy influenced the drama until the Civil War and beyond. Another versatile dramatist of this period was John Ford (1586-?1639), who explored the taboos surrounding the incestuous love between a brother and sister in his tragedy 'Tis Pity She's a Whore (1632). The Renaissance drama in England comes to a close in the reign of Charles I, with a stage dominated by Royalist writers such as James Shirley (1596-1666) and Sir William Davenant (1606-68), whose work foreshadows the satire and social comedy of the Reformation.
It was inevitable that the outbreak of the Civil War between king and Parliament would result in the actors, and to some extent drama itself, being identified with the court. The closure of the theaters in 1642 marks the end of Renaissance drama in England.
* MEDIEVAL TALES
* RENAISSANCE POETRY
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
111U1
-1--1-11]
-9-1-
Y:-11
1-:1U:-:b-
1-1^1:
1111-
1-111
1--1-
-5:-1
11:-Y
U1-11
-Y111
11111
-11--
1-:1-
--1--
1-1--
:1:11
p624-1
J~KTL
ftsTitleOverride
Renaissance Poetry (page 1)
ftsTitle
Sir Philip Sidney by an unknown artist. Poet, courtier, artistic patron, diplomat and soldier, Sir Philip Sidney is traditionally regarded as the complete Renaissance gentleman. He died of his wounds while fighting the Spanish in the Netherlands in 1586, allegedly giving his water-bottle to a dying soldier as he himself was carried mortally wounded from the field.
1Renaissance Poetry (1 of 1)
The Renaissance saw itself as an age of rebirth and extended this principle not only to the revival of classical learning and culture but also to the renewal of features of medieval culture. It is thus misleading to imagine that the Renaissance involved the wholesale discarding of Europe's medieval heritage in favor of a new and exclusively modern view of the world. The Renaissance, in its poetry as much as its decorative arts and drama, was a period of expansive curiosity at once optimistic and anxious, in which individuals sought to distill a distinctive cultural identity.
In these circumstances high claims were made for the power of poetry not only to be pleasing but to transform the natural world and to instruct its readers in wisdom and virtue. This view of poetry was drawn from Classical sources, notably Plato, Aristotle and Horace, and finds its expression in the poetic theory of the time as well as in works such as The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser; the defense of heroic poetry by the Italian poet Torquato Tasso; and ultimately in the proposal of John Milton to employ his epic Paradise Lost, to 'justify the ways of God to men'. Such an aim, and the confidence it required in poets, was a product of the intellectual and political conditions that created and characterized the European Renaissance.
The cultural background
The essential feature of the Renaissance is the intellectual movement known as humanism, which asserted the status and freedom of the individual. Humanism developed in the city-states of 15th-century Italy, whose struggle for independence from medieval institutions such as the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire reflected on the civic plane the individual's quest for freedom. One manifestation of this quest was the critical evaluation of existing knowledge. The recovery of lost manuscripts of Classical texts after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 gave new impetus to the critical analysis and editing of Classical texts. From these developments Renaissance drew its interest in the themes, forms and styles of Classical literature.
The critical practices applied to Classical texts were soon applied by humanists to the Bible as well, and this contributed to the attack by the Protestant Reformation on the authority of the Roman Church. While poets found themselves taking sides in the conflict, many of them - such as Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay in France, Edmund Spenser and Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86) in England, and Torquato Tasso and Pietro Bembo in Italy - shared an interest in Neoplatonism, a philosophical system that sought to reconcile pagan and platonic ideas with Christian faith.
Humanism also helped to create the conditions that led to the scientific revolution of the Renaissance. The revival of interest in Classical doctrines of the nature of the universe, along with the belief that as natural beings men and women could understand their physical environment by using their physical powers, found expression in poetry's interest in natural phenomena and in practices such as astronomy, anatomy and exploration
Three Italian poets constitute the principal precursors of European Renaissance poetry: Giovanni Boccaccio (?1313-75), Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) and Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca: 1304-74). All three were interested in the translation of the effects of Classical rhetoric into Italian verse. Petrarch, in particular, exercised an enormous influence on later poets through his establishment of a sonnet form named after him. The sonnet sequences of poets such as Sir Philip Sidney are a direct reflection of this influence, while many of the sonnets of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and John Donne explicitly deny the Petrarchan mode.
Italy
The ruling families of the Italian city-states of the Renaissance sought to glorify themselves and their regimes through cultural as well as military and political achievement. They made their courts centers of poetic activity through the exercise of patronage. The quest for patronage by poets led them to adopt a variety of roles - servant, lover, counselor and moralist - and to experiment with a variety of poetic forms: epic, lyric or pastoral, according to the needs of their patron. Lodovico Ariosto (1474-1533), for example, wove the history of his patrons, the Este family of Ferrara, into the medieval French story that inspired his epic, Orlando Furioso (1532).
Torquato Tasso (1544-95) rejected both Classical and medieval myth when he came to compose his epic Gierusalemme Liberata ('Jerusalem Delivered'; 1581). Tasso believed that the topicality of a theme (and thus its ability to be instructive) could only be guaranteed by taking it from recent Christian history. Tasso found his subject-matter in the story of the First Crusade (1095-99). The epic Christian achievement of the capture of Jerusalem offered a parallel with Classical models like the Iliad while at the same time serving the more immediate purposes of Counter-Reformation propaganda. For both Ariosto and Tasso (as later, also, for Milton), the epic was the obvious vehicle for linking the most ambitious of poetic and political aspirations. A similar aim is achieved by the Portuguese poet Luis de Camons (1524-80) in his epic Os Lusiadas ('The Lusiads'; 1572), which takes as its theme the voyages of Vasco da Gama and celebrates not only the achievements of the explorers and mankind's mastery of the physical world, but also the greater epic of Portuguese imperial expansion.
Pietro Bembo (1470-1547) and Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564) were each best known for their work in lyric modes. In such forms Petrarch was the most admired and imitated writer. His use of hyperbole, antithesis and metaphor exerts its influence down to the English Metaphysical Poets of the early 17th century. Although Bembo is clearly influenced by Petrarch, his own poetry, especially his canzones, is deliberately free of the Latinism and metaphorical complexity of Petrarch and strives instead for clarity and dignity. Michelangelo likewise rejected Classical elements in his poetry as well as the principle of imitation which had done so much to ensure Petrarch's status.
Italian Renaissance poetry contained a diversity of poetic forms: the canzone and sestina, with their intimate link between the disciplines of form and argument, the pindaric ode, the epic, the epigram and the eclogue, all derived from Classical models, and the allegory, which was the favored form of the Neoplatonists. Through these forms and through the literary theory of writers such as Tasso in his Discorsi dell'arte poetica ('Meditations on the Art of Poetry'; 1587) the poetry of Renaissance Italy spread its influence throughout the rest of Europe.
France
In France a group of seven poets known collectively as the Pluiade were responsible for bringing Italian influence to bear on French poetry. The Pluiade, notably Pierre de Ronsard (1524-85) and Joachim Du Bellay (1526-60), abandoned medieval French forms such as the ballade and the rondeau in favor of Classical models and Italian lyrical forms. Du Bellay's manifesto, Dufense et illustration de la langue francoyse (1549), embodied their belief that the revival of French poetry required such stylistic principles as the revival of archaisms, the adoption of dialect terms and the coining of new words. In practice the Pluiade established the alexandrine, a six-beat line or hexameter as the standard form of French verse.
By 1560 Ronsard was court poet to Charles IX of France and the Pluiade in general were spokesmen for a culturally Catholic France, soon to be embroiled in the Wars of Religion (1562-98). In this cause Ronsard wrote a number of political poems such as Discours des miseres de ces temps (1562) and an unfinished epic La Franciade (1572). While making common cause with the forces of European Catholicism, the poets of Renaissance France were also committed to their own distinctive culture. This can be seen in Du Bellay's poem Les Antiquitus de Rome (1558), a lament for the lost grandeur and present decadence of Rome which typifies the tense relationship between external influence and cultural independence in this period.
The Protestantism of Guillaume du Bartas (1544-90) isolated him from the Pluiade, but the influence of his creation epic La Sepmaine ou Cruation de Monde (1578) on English writers such as Sidney and Milton was immense. English poetry of the Renaissance is in fact marked by the conflicting forces of Italianate style transmitted directly from Italy and through the Pluiade, and the Protestant seriousness represented by du Bartas.
England
If Edmund Spenser (1552-99) is the most significant of English Renaissance poets, Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86) is the most representative. Courtier and Protestant champion, Sidney embodied the highest conception of what the Renaissance poet should be. Sidney displayed the influence of Neoplatonism in the conception of the beloved lady as the sublime image of the idea of soul that he celebrates in his sonnet sequence Astrophil and Stella (1581-83). The same theme is allegorized in Spenser's unfinished romance, The Faerie Queene (1590-96), whose particular female subject is Queen Elizabeth I.
Spenser's poetry displays the influence of Tasso and Ariosto, but modifies this with the Protestantism that made The Faerie Queene an heroic poem for an emergent nation. In Spenser the desire to imitate Italy that had inspired so much Renaissance poetry is replaced by the desire to oppose the influence of Rome. His contemporary, Samuel Daniel (1562- 1619), as well as writing sonnets also attempted an epic, The Civil Wars (1595-1609), as his contribution to the cultural self-realization of England. Lyricists like Thomas Campion (1567-1620) and John Dowland (1563-1626) traveled widely as musicians, and as Roman Catholics were less defensive in the face of French and Italian influence. By contrast, in Germany, although Renaissance themes were introduced, they were grafted by composers such as Hans Sachs (1494-1576) onto native literary forms and styles.
The poetry of Sir John Davies (1569- 1626) encapsulates most of the concerns of English Renaissance poetry. Orchestra (1596) is a philosophical account of the physical world through the image of dancing, while Nosce te ipsum (1599) is a distillation of his reading of Classical and medieval European philosophers. Finally, his collection of 26 acrostic poems on the name of Elizabeth I, Hymns of Astraea (1599) acknowledges the intimate link between poetry and politics that applied at that time. In the same way, Shakespeare's Sonnets (first published 1609) reflect the intimate inter-relationship of Neoplatonic love and the anxious realities of patronage.
THE METAPHYSICAL POETS
The term Metaphysical, coined by Dr Johnson in the 18th century, is used to describe a number of early 17th-century English poets whose verse - witty and intellectual - makes use of abstract ideas and paradoxes to express feelings.
John Donne (1572-1631) was the foremost Metaphysical poet: his love poetry is characterized by a dazzling and often cynical wit, while his religious poems explore vividly the paradoxes of Christian belief.
George Herbert (1593-1633) was a religious poet. Like Donne, he was an Anglican searching out issues and problems of faith, though in a less dramatic, and more reflective mode. Other Metaphysical poets of note include Henry Vaughan (1621-95), Andrew Marvell (1621-78), Richard Crashaw (1612/13-49) and the young Milton.
PARADISE LOST
The great Christian epic Paradise Lost (1667) was the work of a formidably erudite poet - John Milton (1608-74). In the poem - the story of Satan's rebellion against God and the casting out of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden - Milton draws on a wealth of earlier poetry, both Classical and Renaissance. The medieval world-view persists in Paradise Lost, but it is counterpoised by Renaissance values; Classical learning suffuses the poem, in tension with a Protestant faith steeped in Scripture; the moral aims of Spenser and Tasso (both absorbed by Milton) are raised to a yet higher power. Yet this power is exhaustive: Paradise Lost is the last successful epic, the supreme example of the scope and confidence of Renaissance poetry. There is also in Milton much of the luxuriance and energy of the Baroque, which promises new growth after the sterility of late Renaissance Mannerism. Milton is the last great Renaissance poet but also an important influence on the poetry, especially the English poetry, of the post-Renaissance world.
world.
e world.
* MEDIEVAL EPIC AND ROMANCE
* MEDIEVAL TALES
* RENAISSANCE DRAMA
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
0PTxP
P,LyP
0PT,0P$
y101$
PPytT
PT,p]
x,U$$
xxPxx
U]10U!
1P(P(
,t)P,
xtTP0t
PU,L-
P(1P1
U,Q]P
1T1UTQ1
$]P0t
UT11T1
T,-TUU11,
y,UTy
1y1P$
P(U0H
U,y10
P1$]UUT
11yUU
,Q,P0
1tU]1-
1-1xU
-,1T1T-tT
T1TU1U]L
1xT1x10
U1TH,
T,y10
TUU,-
ty0y]
1T1PU
(1y-UP
(U1UU
yyY1P1
UY-y1U
-1U0y]
x110P
uxPy]
1YUY1
1Y10z2
1y]1y
L0y-T
UyUUYP]
1p11Uy
10y11U
2y1yy
U,U,--T-
0U011T]
0U1T,1
T1U0Q11y
11Q0-
Q1-0U
-0U1T,]
PQ0U0)P
P1x11
1U-0-
010QT-,Q(U
U1U1T,
U0Q1-TUT
U1x1Y
P1-0U11y1
L-U11
L1,U0U11
U\y0Q
T-0-0U1
1y-0U0
21U,U0
1Y11,-
P1xU1
1t1T-x1U
1y1U,0U0P
U1]-T
U0-YU
Q10U0
Q9UU01
1P1T-T
-1,1T
PU1y11
y1U1T10
Q01T1
,zUT11
-1U11T
--L1y1UP
P1,1y11
1-P1T
-x-Ux
U1U11T
1T1-U
-T11P
U]y1U
10yy0
UyU]y1
T,U,1
1UU-,
1UxUU
yU010
9U1UT
P10U,
y10-U
01Uy]y
-U8-T
z1y1-U0P
]U]Q0y
1U,)T
0U0U,
01yy]
UyU0Q11
U0U0y
,-U10y11y
-T1Q,1P1
1y1U0
Y1T1,1
11Uy0y-
-(-Ty
,U,01
UY1U0-1
$1T10
y10U0
-01yU
Y1U0P--
11xy0
y-1-0U1Y1
yUy1-1
y01y11T
,(UU1
Q\UU,T
1\1U1Ux1
]1T^U]M
U0U0M11T
--T--(
P1,V1$
9x1U1
0U0-0
-T-0U
M011,-
Q0U,U
y9y01
,(-T1
U,U0P
1TUU-,U
1T1-,U
1--T,
y0-0y0
PTQ0T
-,T10
UU1P1-
yYUUy
U1P11
x-]-,0
1-T1Y
]yTU1Q0-
1xU11-
y1,U0-T
11T1,
0U11P
U1-$1U01
yUTU1U
10yYy
0U11x
,T11U
yU]QUT-L
1-0Q0U
P--1T12
yy]Q1y]-TU
Q,U,-0
]T10y0U1
UUy1Q0
U01y0
UUy]U1
y01-U
y]yUU,
yT-0U01
,--]yU
y-1P0,
-T-0QT0
y1U1-,U
-Q0U,
U,1TU
t1Ut1T-0T1
P1x1U0U,
Uy-1P1T
P10Q0-T
-P-0U,y,
11,UUTy1-
-101T1,Q
Q101Q,-Q)
0-,)T-U
U0-T10T
1T-U,-0Q
yUx11]UTQ
y,U-1x1
Ux1y1T1x
1T1,-U
,20x11P
P1UTU19-,y
10T1,--
0U0P,UU-,
-y]1U]y
1)TUY]-
$]-0P
)T1-1U
,U-1y
0--T1
-UTU1x11T-
1-T-T
P\Q(-L
1yPU1U--
UU-1T
0T-0-
]yUP]L1
,1T,1
UU]Zy
1U1P11P
UU1P1
1y,-T-,
0011U,1Q
y1TUP10-,
1-T-1-,Y
P0U1]
UT-1-01T
-1xPx
0-T-)
T-P10P
T1-P)
1T,--T
P1-,)
,yUt,p
yy-PU
yTyUZ
]x0yy
UU-Yy
U1yyU
LPU1U,
-,(-P
U-T,U0T,1
p626-1
ftsTitleOverride
Classicism in Literature (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Oath of the Horatii by the French painter Jacques Louis David. Ancient Roman legend tells of an uncompromisingly patriotic soldier (one of three brothers - the Horatii), who kills his sister when she weeps at the death of her lover - an enemy of Rome whom he has slain in single combat. This tale of martial virtue provided the basis for Pierre Corneille's Neoclassical drama Horace (1640), an austere tragedy of the conflict between family affection and public duty.
Classicism in Literature (1 of 2)
Knowledge of and interest in the works of ancient Greek and Roman authors was a key aspect of the Renaissance. After that explosive fusion of old and new ideas came a period when Neoclassical writers tried to imitate in modern languages what they thought was the spirit and style of the classics. Neoclassicism was especially strong in the French theater during the 17th century and in England from the Restoration of 1660 to the end of the 18th century.
The virtues seen in ancient Classical writers were an appeal to reason rather than emotion; a concern with ideas and experiences of a universal validity; and a style characterized by clarity, control and dignity. Alexander Pope's translation of Horace's dictum 'What oft was thought but ne'er so well expressed', conveys in its balanced phrasing the harmony of style and subject matter cherished by the Neoclassicists.
The French Classical theater
In his Poetics Aristotle discussed the unified organization of a tragedy. Later writers - notably the influential Italian Renaissance critic Lodovico Castelvetro (1505-71) - developed Aristotle's ideas into a set of rules, known as the unities. The unity of action restricted the action to a single plot. The unity of time restricted the span of events on stage to 24 hours and the unity of place limited the action to a single spot. The unities of time and place were intended to help the audience 'believe' what they saw. When they are skillfully handled, as in the best plays of Corneille and Racine, these constraints can produce drama of great power and concentration; less adroitly applied, they can engender much clumsy contrivance in order to squeeze characters into one location and action into one day.
Pierre Corneille (1606-84) began by writing comedy, but then attempted a classical tragedy. Le Cid (1637) is based on the life of the 11th-century Spanish hero and explores the moral clash of passion and duty. The play was immensely successful, but broke the unity of action, thereby displeasing the newly formed Acadumie francaise, a literary academy founded in 1634 and devoted to maintaining the standards of the French language. This controversy led to final acceptance of the unities and the exclusion of sub-plots from French Classical drama thereafter. Corneille went on to write three great plays - Horace (1640), Cinna (1641) and Polyeucte (1643) - which conform strictly to these rules, and deal with conflicts between family affection and public duty and the rival claims of justice and mercy.
In all these plays the central characters are put under severe mental pressure. Their moments of emotional stress are presented in long, rhetorical speeches in a style that is elevated rather than natural. In accordance with the Neoclassical virtue of restraint, there is little action on stage. The plays are written in six-beat rhyming couplets (Alexandrines) that were held to give the speech true Classical dignity.
Corneille lived to see his place as France's greatest tragic dramatist usurped by Jean Racine (1639-99), who drew upon Greek, Roman and Biblical sources for most of his plays. The tragedies Andromaque (1667), Britannicus (1669), Burunice (1670) and Bajazet (1672) respectively explore themes of emotional rejection, tyranny, the conflict of love and duty, and revenge. But it is in Phedre (1677) that Racine's central theme of the destructive power of passion is most memorably dramatized. Phedre - one of a succession of agonized heroines in his drama - is torn between her love for a young man and her guilt because he is her stepson. Racine uses the formal and stylistic conventions of Neoclassicism to write tragedies of power and psychological depth unrivaled in French literature. His plays adhere rigidly to the unities; his plots are stark and simple; all is focused on a poetic language of masterly flexibility and concentration.
The greatest writer of Classical French comedy was the playwright, actor and producer Moliere (the pen name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, 1622-73). The ancient Greeks saw comedy as a way of ridiculing the absurdities of men, and this Molire did supremely well. But as well as exposing the foibles and falsity of a whole gallery of misfits, obsessives and hypocrites in such plays as The School for Wives (1662), Don Juan (1665), and The Miser (1668), he also celebrates tolerance and generosity of spirit.
Moliere's plots, which often involve a romantic element and clever, contriving servants, are influenced by Terence and Plautus in their use of certain stock characters, and by the improvised farce of the Italian Commedia dell'arte. But Moliere's characters take on an individuality and a vitality of their own. In Tartuffe (1664) he derided religious hypocrisy so effectively that he outraged all shades of religious opinion. Moliere's greatest play, The Misanthrope (1666), stops only just short of tragedy in its perceptive depiction of an uncompromising and self-righteous critic of the sins of society.
Subtle analysis of feeling and sentiment characterizes the plays of Pierre Marivaux (1688-1763). Despite their verbal preciosity, The Game of Love and Chance (1730) and The False Confidences (1737) show an increase in realism, establishing precise social settings and giving the servant characters real feelings.
The chief theorist of Neoclassical French literature was the poet and critic Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711), who wrote epistles and satires on Horatian models. His Poetic Art (1674) defined principles of literary judgment that were put into practice in England by Dryden and Pope.
The influence of French Neoclassicism throughout Europe was deep but not always beneficial. In Germany the critic Johann Christoph Gottsched (1700-66) determined to improve German literary style using French models and wrote vigorously in support of this aim. But the dramatist and critic Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1728-81) - who used English literature as his model in his comedy Minna von Barnhelm (1767) and his domestic tragedy Miss Sara Sampson (1755) -helped free German literature from slavish imitation of French Neoclassicism. Lessing's drama exemplified a new trend in drama to select subjects from everyday life, rather than the doings of the great.
The wave of egalitarianism that swept through European literature in the late 18th century is seen in two plays by Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais (1732-99), which take the character of the clever servant to its highest expression. The Barber of Seville (1775) and The Marriage of Figaro (1784) explore the master-servant relationship in the household to attack despotic government and hereditary privilege. The plays inspired operas by Rossini and Mozart.
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* ROMANTICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
P$,H,
Ppt,,L
H$P$,(
$$PPtp
tPltLt
LPP$PtL
xt,p,
Pt(H,pPplt
LtLtPlPt
Tt(tP
tLtPLtP
PltPpPpl
t,(t,p
LPPLt,pPtH
PlPpt
tPpPp
$,L,L,
,L,P(t
tPptPptLt
LPL,t(PPL,
,p,PLtPL
H,H$Pp,t
lPltl
LttpP
P,pPtL
tLPPLPLPPH
PL,t(t,p,t
t$,($,($
PPpltL
pPpPtptL
p,tLtL
ltpPt
pPtpPtp
$,P,t(t
(t,L,(PP(t
,LPL$PL,,H
PLPP$t
pPtpP
tLtPlt
PlPlt
T$,$$
P,t(t,L
P,L,,PLPHP
LPHPPL,$$
(t,($l
PptPH
LtPpt
PpPtptPtpl
Pptlt
LlPL$
t(t,p
PP,(P
PP(P,LP$
HPLPpt
,(P,L
t,lPP
PtLtpl,plt
tPpH$l$P
ptPLPL
(t(t(t(t,p
$,P(P,L
$P$,(H
LH$PLP$,
L,$$HlPH
,$H$Pptl,
tLtPtLl
PpHtL
,pPp,$$,
HPptH,$
$PPLPP
LP,pt,p,,
HH,$,
LH,P(
LHP$,
H$,HHPL
tLtpPp
$P$,(
t,p,t
$LttL
LP(t(
$P,L,
pt,(,L,$
t(P($
pPPp,
,PPt$,p,p,
t(tH,L
,lH,lH
PH,H,L
HPLlPp
$,($t(P$,
PPLtL
tH$,L
H$,(P$
tptLt,p
Pt(ttl,ptL
tpP,tL,H,
,$,H$,(P,(
LxtHPPLP
tLtPL,PL,p
,t(PPptPtL
pltll
tltLP$P$P$
PL,LP
$,(,(P(,PH
LtptLttp,p
tpPp,P(P,$
tHtllt
,$,,L,
t$tHP$
,p,p$
H,,$tl
tLPttLt,lP
tltLl,L,p
t$t,t
t$,$$
$P(P(t(
lP(PLtPp,p
tLPLtpPL
PptPL
$,$,,H,$
$PtLPL
l$,(H,
t$,($$
t(H,(
Pt$Pp
p,tlPt$t,t
Ht$,pP
p$t(HP$$
t(lPH(PHt,
pPt(ltLPt(
pHLtPptP
tLltlPpPt
$PllPH,H,p
tLPHP,HPp
t(tPp,p,
,ltPL
,pPtltLtl
tLPLP($
($,L$$
P,LHPtpP
P$PH,HP
(t,LPP$,
P(P$PP
LPp,tHP
tpPPlPt(tH
tp,LPP,LP,
lPlH,
L$t$HP$
Ht(ltpPH,
t,pPL
,ltLPLtLHt
,tLtP
pPt(H
PtL$L,,p
PH,$Hl
$tltltl,
,$,p,p
,pt,ptLPLt
tLPLH
,p,tLPL
PLH,L
pPt,H,
pl$,$Htl
Pl,H,
,$,$,pH,
PLPLP
(Ppt$tL
PH,LH
,LP(P(HP$
H,pPlLl,$(
,t$,p
$H,P$$
llP$HP
lPH,L,HP
p,,Hx
$$,($
ltltL
ltltH,L
H,p,l,
t,(,,p,t
(,,L$
$$,P$
,HPLHPp,tL
P,pHPtH
$l,(H
H,$H,
P,p,L,tH
PtpPpP
tLPpPtpP
,(t($tHH,(
tLt(P
p,$Pp
$,p,ltp
LltPH$
tltLHP
($,$P($,
L$,$$
tL$ll
HtHH,(
$PPHl,
,HtltL
l,HHPH
Pp,t(H
Ltp$ltLH,
PpP$P
PL$PH,$,(
$,$$,LH
lP$,(
tltl,p$
tl,l,lH,$$
,LH$,(,$
lPH,l$t
l,l$Pl
pll,l
,l,pt
L,$P$
$P$tP,H
t$,lH,$$
HH,ll
P$,lH
T,(P$
HPpl,
tp,tlP
PH,$,
$P$$,L,
(l,lP
,HP($
llH,$
HH,H,
LtPL,t
$,$P$
,ltLtl,p$,
t$,LH
,L$$,$
lltH,$
PH$l$
,pPlP$
L$,$,
,$P$,
Ll,L$$
PH,l$$
lP,(H
H,L$,L
P$,$,$
,$,P$
$Pt$t
tLtl,
$,L,$
L,P(,$
($,LH,P
,L,H,L,L
,L,(PH,L,$
(P$$,H
H,L,$t(P
P,L,(t(
HP$Pp,L,$
l,H,l
lHP$l,
,HlPll
llP(H,$l
$,(P$,L
t$tP$
H$t(,P
$$P($$P($
$P(PH,HPL$
HP$tL
PP(tPPL,PL
PH,H,L,H,L
tLHHPl,HH
$$,HH,H
tHP$PH
L$,$PH
ttPltpl
(P(,(
t,(,H
(,L,P,L,,P
t(,(P(
p,tHPL,(
P,p,l,p
p,,p,L,
$,L$tH
$$,$t
ttLtl
l,H$H,
PptPlt
$$,,$
P(P(H,t
,LP(PH
P(,(P
(PH,(,L$,
$tHtPL,L,p
,t(tH,L,l,
P$,($$
($Ht$
,L,$,
LlPpt
P$PL,LPP,L
,$P$,L,H,L
$$,LH,p,t
(,(HP
H,H,t$t,
PH,H,
t$tPL
ll,$H
tpltlP
,,(H,$,
,L,LPLH
,(HP,HPH,L
,,H,H,
H$P$,P
L,t(P$P(PP
,H,H,H,t(P
,pHlH,HH
,HHPH
LPpll
l,Hl,$ll
t(,L,L,P
,,L,,(P,L$
P(PPH(,
P(H,P(H,
p,t,L$t(H
PH,P(t,
tpHPLt
HPllPlHl
$0H,L
P,$,(
LPH,L,L,P
(t$($
HP(P,P$
PtL,$
P(P(P,(t
P(H,(P,P(H
,p,P(t(l,
PpPpH
HHP$t
t,(H,$P
t(P,p$,L,
,H,(P,,t,p
,(PPL,,(P(
L,PH,t(t
PMP(tLH
,,L,p
(P(P,
,p,$,H,(P,
LH,L,L
HP,$P
pP$H,,
,(H,$$
Ppt$,P
P$$,P$,H
,,LPP(P,H,
P(HPLPH,L,
$,tLP$tP
PPpt,
t(tPt
PtLt,lL
$PH,HH,
$,,LH
HlPlt
Pl,p$
LP,LPp,t
pPtLPL
Pt,pP
PLPLtPLPPL
LtpPt(tPL
Ltt(PLPH,H
$,$$HH
H,$,L,
,$P$,L,
,P(P,,LPPH
,LPPLP
pPPLt,p,pP
P($$Ltt
,tpPPLP
LtLPLPPH,
$,(H,$
$PHH,
$,Hltll
H,$,H
,p,p,$,
t(,HPp$t(t
,t(l,pPPp,
P$P$,t(
PtLPPpPPLt
tLt,P
,L,H,H
$P(tl
($,L,
P$,L,L,
p,t(t(t,
PL,t,p,t(t
,t,pPp,L
t(ttp,tpP
t(t(P(t,pH
H,H,$$t
$PHlPl
l,HPlP
t$,HP
,P(P,
,L,(P
,,$P$t(t,,
L,p,LPt(
PLPLP
($,LPLPt
Pp,t(ttPpt
tH$,L$
tH,$,L,
H,,L,$P(,L
PPL$,L,p,
,$PL,PLP,p
,t,p,t(PP(
HtPp,p,
t(tL,p,tLP
,p$,H,$$
(t$PH
PtLtL
l$H,HH
PpPL,
L$,p$
P$,L$P(
$PP(,P
t(PPL,p,t,
H,t(tP
pP,LP
$,HPLtLl
$,(P$
(,P(P,p,
t$PL,,p,t,
p,p,t(t(t(
tL,tL
,p,L,p
,t(t(t(t(l
lPH,$$
HP$P(tP
,L$tHlt
PpPLPt
(P,H,
PpPLl
P,$P(,
$,(P,,(H
$,$,,$,
lH,$,$,PLP
PP(t$
,(P(PLP
$,$,,L,(,L
$P,$t
,L,(P,L$P(
P(,L,p
LH,p,t($
HH,l,lP
ltlPH
$$P(t
$,$,HP
PtLtLt,
L,$P$,
,L,$t
,P(P$
,H,H,$
,t,p$,($,L
,,L,PL$P$
PHP(P
lPl,H
LlPp,t
,L,P,$,$,(
$,$,$
P$,L,
($P(H
($,L,L,(P,
P$PP(P(,Pl
$,H$,
$Pltl
L,P(,t
,$,$,
,P($,$
LPLP,
P(H,L
,H,l,pH,
ltll,
($,,(,P,L,
($,$,
P$,$P($,
H,L,L,,$
$$,H,
$P(,LP(
,L,$P,L
,L,L,(PP
P$,$,
(PH,H,$
$,$,$P$
$,Ht$
tTP,H$
tPL$,
P,$,L
,($,L,,$,P
$$,$,
,$,L,
,LH,(l,
P$,P$
$lPlPl
H,$$,H$$
tPp,$,$
,LPP($,
P($,L,
$,$,L
lt$,Pl
tHt(l
$,(tpPH
($P(Pl
,t(tPp
PtLtH
pPLP$P
,$,L,,
(t,P(,
,H,$,
xtt(P
tpPtL
,$,U$
$,P(P
PltptH
PtLtP
Pltlt
$P$P(lP
PltLPP
ltlPL
,$PP$,$
P$PL,$
$PP($(
lPL$PH(
ltlPPpP
ttLtPp
H,tlP
$P$P$,$tp,
,LPP(
,Ltl,lP
tLtlP
$,$,L$PH,
,$,$,L,P,
L,(t,t(t$
t($,(
$,$,L,
tpPlt
$$P($,
p,HP$P
(t(P$t
$,$,pl,H
,$$Pt(
,$,p$
,L$,H,$P
lP,(H,H,tH
Ltt,l
plPt(Pl
,(P($
LP(P(
,HPltp
pPltlP
$H,$,
t,p,PL,PLP
PpPttL$
P(PP(,t
ttLt(t(P,
,tLlP(
ptt$$
,$P$,L,l,$
$Pp,tp,
(t,pP
LP(P(,L
t,t$P
tPL,H
$,LPtpP,tL
PPLtPp
$,($,
P(,,P
,LH,t
PL,PHP
ttLt(P,($
$P,(PH,$P
L$,(,$PH
PH,H,H,p
t,HPpPtpt
(Pp,tL
l$,p,p,P(,
LP(,$t,p,(
tLt(tPL,
$t,p$,LH
PP$P$P$
(l,p$
$P$H,p
PLPp,HtpPt
(tP,p,
,$P(P
LPPp,$PL,L
t(,HP
$$PHP
$,p$PPLHPL
LPPLPP(,PH
Ppt(t,p
PPHP,(t(t(
,LPp,$t
,H,$P,LtLt
,LtH,p,P
P(t(PPp
P,L,t(PPtP
L,PLP$,p
(Pt(P$
LPLHtH,
tLP$H(t(,
,LtPp,t(
t,L,p
PH,pHPtHP
tPpPP
(PHP(,p
,P$\HPL
LtPPLP(
t(,,p,tLP
$t(,P
,PptPpPp
t(t$P
pPt($
PP(P$
L$Ppt
$PH,PL
P(PpP
ttp,t(,L
,$t($$,
t,,(P
$t,L,
,Pp,L,P
pPt(HP
t,P(t
PLP,$
P,(,p
p,$,H
LPP,P
,,p,P(,
(l,l,L
,LPPtLP
tPpPL,t(P
lt$P$,
Pp$tPHP$
$PPpPL,P(
P(t,H
LH,$,
lt$,,$
$,$tLT
tPpPp,t,
P$$,H
Lt,L$
p,PHP
L,PLP($,
PpP$P
tt,p,p,P
,Pp,p,p
$t,LP
tPpPp
H,$P,(P
l$,H$
P$Pp,tLtLt
pPPLP(
$t(t(tLt
PLPtTP,
TPLt$
(P,L,
PpPpx,
P$,H,lPl
,pPt$P
,,($$l
PpPtLP($
tLP,ll
pPP(P
tpPP(t
xPp,t
p,,L,(
tPtLPP
,$t,l
t($$,l
$t,L,t,
tLtLtp,L
(tP$,
P(P,L
tlt(t
,,p,,L,L
pPttPp,,
Ltl$PLH
,L,(P,L,
,LPt(
$,HtpHP(
,$tH,
p,L,,$,
H,l,l,L
plPLt(tlP
x,PLTP
$PtH$
TtP,pTP
PLP,,p
,p,$t
H,H,lPH,
l,Ll,
HPH,($
t(PL,
L,L,P
(tPpt(t
,l,p,
PLPtl,P
ptPt(t(
p,P$,
tPptP
tl,LH,l
Lt(HtPt
PPLHP
t$ltH,H
PLl$,$t
$PtLPP
LtPLP
tltlt
$PHt(tH,p
,,p$PL
,L$,pP
LH,PL
LttL,P
t(P$,$lP
PLPHP
ltlPlt
LPP$P
$Px,(t,L,H
$(t,tPL
,H,pt
PPL$,
t0H,P
P,(tLtP
PplPlt
PL$H,
H,$,$
P(x,P(PL
,pt(tP
,H,l,lP
(H,$,$,(
tLHPPp
,T,xT
tLltllP
,,L,P,
$,(tT
$,L$,(
,H,,L
tpltltlt
t,p,t
lPltll
,H,l,(t$,
t,p,tLt
P(PPp
Hltlt
$PP$,H
p,t(t
P$,(P
$,p,t(
,t(P($
ltltlt
PLPL$
,p,Lt$t(P,
$,L,P,
t(tLt
lPltpl
l,$t(H,H
t(t,p
tllPl
,H,p,
(H,t,L,,L,
txPPLPPp
t$Ht(,
,p,(t,L,L,
tLtPp
PtLtt(tt
PL,P(t
L,L$,
tPtPL
,p,PLt,
P(t,L,
l,Ht$PL
H,p,t
$,$,P
,t(PPpPtp
PP(,$
tHPp,
p,pPPLP
1$,L,P(P
ptPpPP(
tltlP
,H,H,t
,p,,(P,
xttLtPpPtL
PPLttpt
lPltlPl
Plt(,
PL,L,,
pPtLt
pPPLt,
L,$tp
ll,$P
,p,tLPPLP,
pPttptPpPP
Lt,p,
LllPHP$PP
t,p,t(,,L
,ptpPpPtLt
tLt,p,tL
$,p$P$,p
Plt$,Ht
p,PLPP(t,L
tLttLt
,HP$,
lltltlt
H,HPLP,L
,t(P,L,,L,
$,L,H
,(P$,
,ptx,
tLttLt
pPtpPt
lPlPL
t,p,t(P
PLP,L
LPt(t,
tltltltlP
lltlt
p,Pp,,(,L$
,$$P(P$
LPtpt
,tLtPpt
tltH,$,
H,p,tL
(PPp,PL,P(
$,L,(
PtLtP
pPt(ttp,
$PLPL,,
L,,pPP(t
($,HP$
L,$,L
(P,LPp
PttLtt
tPLPtLt
ltllt
t$H,P(t
,p,L,t
,$,$$PtptL
ttLtPpPPpP
,HPP(t
,p,t,L,(,P
$,$,(P
PttLtt
PpPPpP
lPllt
L,LPP,L,L,
t,ptLttLtt
(PtLtPpPt
$,HP($
llPlPH,$
P$,LP
HPP(t(,$
,L$,($
ptLtPpt
t(tPLtt
T$,LPH
lltlt
t$tp,P(
t,L,t(,L,P
$$,L$t
PtLttL
PPLPt
PlHlPl
P($P(,,p,
t(tL,t(
$,$,(
(,$,P(,PL
tLttLttLtt
LPt(tP
Pltlt
l,Ht(P(t,
t(P,P
H,P($
tPpttLttLP
PLPtLtP
,$,P(t(
t,pPp,P$,
$$,$P
(P,,L
,ptPpPtLtL
tPLPt(t
Lltlt
tPpltl
P(P(t(PPL
t(,P,
P(tPpt
pPptLPPpP
lltll
,(,P(
$$,$,
H,HP(,
tLt,tLtp
PpPt,
PHPll
,P($,p
,LP,p,L,P(
,L,,$t,p
LttPlt
t(PPp
,P(,L,
PLP,L,p,,p
H,$P,
PpPttpPp,
pt(tPp,tL
ltlPH
,L,L,
PLP,p,t,,L
$,L,$,
H,L$t
PLPPL
,$,$,
,p,LPt,(P(
P(P,(t
PpPttPptt
,l,t(ttL
tLtPp
H,,L,L,,t
(P(P(P,(P,
L$,$$
(H,L,$$
(P$P(P,H$P
ptPpPptP
p,t(tP
$,P(P(P
,p,L,
,(P(t,
$,$,$
P$,(P,
PpPtPLt
tPHPpPt
(t$,H
HH$,,L,
p,(PLP
$,(P$$t
Pl,pt
L,P(t,L
(,P(,P
($$,L$$
L,$,PH
PL,ptP
LtLtP
LP(,pPP(PL
$,$,L$,(
$,($,$,
$,L,$,L
,L,P(
tPpPtpPp
,LtPLP
LtPL,
Pp,l,LH
,L,P(,L
,t,p,P(t
L,,L,
,$,$,
P$$PHt
p,(P,
tPpPP
,P(,P,LPp,
P(,L,(P(
,$,$P
$,,pPtt
tLtPltlPl
lP$Pl
p,pPP,PLPH
,(P,$,
P(P(P($
pPpPpttL
PLPLP
t,L,P
,,LPp,p,L$
(P($,,$,
Pp,l,
PPHPt
P(l,P
$P(,P(,p,p
L,,$,
$$P($
PpttLtPp$t
tLtlpltp
tpltp
PLPP$PLH,,
L,$P(
LtLtt
pt,t(,tPLt
$,$,l
PtPll
,H$H,$
$$,$,$
,L,,PPLPP,
tLttLt
tPpPLtp,L
$,L,,LPLPP
(H,,H
H$t,$l
(P,L,,p,L,
H,,L$tLt
tLtPtpPtp,
t(PLt
P,p,$P
LP,(H
$,P(,LP
tpPtp
$H,lPl,l
ltPHH
,LH,L,pPL,
,(P,($
P(P(P$
tPptPpt
Pp,tLt
$,lP$
,(,P(tPP(t
,LP,(P
tLttLtP
PLPH,pH
H,H,L
(P,LP(t(
t,p,P
,$($,L,
pPtpPtp
Pp,t,L,pP
$,p,$
,$,LPPt(t,
p,,L,$P($
P$,L,
pPpPtLtPp,
p,p,HP
t$PL$P
p,,L,L,
P(,,L
t,p,tL
$,$PP
,($,,H
t,p,P(t$,$
($,$,L$,
,tpPpPxPp
tpPp,t(PPp
P,L,,
L,p,P(,P,
,$,pPttLtp
PtPp,PLPLP
,L$PL
lHlPH$
L,,p,t,
H(,P($P
LtLtpPtp
p,p,p
,,P(,(
H,$$,
,ttpPt
pPptLPPLPP
H,$P,
L$t(PP
P(P($$
P(,P(
tLtPpPtPt
,t(t,pt
P,L$,
tHHPxHt$
$PHPPL,
p,t(P,,L
tLt,pt
H(t,pP
$,(,$
t$,,l
,t,(P
t,L$,$
($,L,
P(,L,
L,P(tLt,
tPpt,t,p,
H,p$t(
,p$H,
$,,L,(
P$,$,
L,$,$
,H,(H,L
L,P$t(t(
,L,$,$
,pPpPptP
PP(PPpt
(P($,
,P$P(
,$$,$,
L,t(t
,p,P(,,P(
L$tLttPptP
ptt(t,ptPp
,L,$P
lHPp$P(
LPP$,$
P$,L,t
,p,PLP,L
PHP$,$
P(t,L
H,t(t,p,
PptPpt
tLt,p,P(t
P$,,L
P(t,PLP,,P
,ptPpP
tLttLPPLP
L$,(P
($,,PLPL
t(P($,$
,,HPpt
PptPptPp,t
(t,pt
PPLPt(
P$,P(PL
LP,(,P(
ttPpPtptPp
Pt(tPp,
P$PL$
P(t(P
PLH,L,P,L
$,pPpttL
tPptPLPtLP
tLPL$,
,P,PLt(P,
pPtLttpPt(
t,pPPpP
PP(tLP$PLP
PPptPpP
tpPPLt,p,
L,$,$,$
tPpPP
L,P,(P,
,PptPpPtpP
tpt,p,
($$(P
$P,L,,p,L,
(tPp,t
L,L,P,,
($,L$
($,L,P(t,
PpPpPtLt
t(tPt(Pp
,$L$P
L,,P(
PL,,($,($
L$Ttp
tt(tLP
P(,$P$
p,p,PLt
,LP(tP(
pPtptPp
LtPtLtt
PL,(,$,
P,,L,,LP
P(t,P($
pPtpPtLt
,t(t(t,
,,L,P(
(t(tPt(
tt(t,PPp
L$,,L
PT,pt
L,,pPt(
pPP(P$
$tPpt(
PLtPpPPLt
(tPpP
,L$tP
L,PLP,
xtPtPpPt
tp,LPt
$P,L,(,
L,(P,
,,L,P(,P(P
pPptp,t
p,tPPLt
L,L,P
$,$,(,
$,L,(,
LP(PPt(,P(
PtPpPt
ttLPPpPLP
$,P$P
$PPp,(P,(P
ptpPtpPtLt
,p,LPtptP
tpPtLt
LPPL,t(P
ttLtPp,tp
t,p,tPPL
P(P(H
P(t,P,p
LtPpt
Pp,t(PL
L,p,t(P
p,tp,
,p,tp,t
L$,$$
LP(,(t,L
,,H,L
PpPtLtt
ptPPLPPt(P
,($(P
,(,,L,
P,,pt,p,PL
P,L,L
,L,P(tPpP
pPp,p,L,,L
,L,PLPPp
H,,L,P
PL,,p,PLP,
t,LP,
P(P$,H
H,p,P(P,t
P,L,LtLtLt
,L,,(P
($,L,P(PPL
,P(PP
,L,LP
H,L,p,P(t(
t(t,p,PH,P
(tPpPpP
L,,PL
,t(t,p,
P,(,P$,$,
t,p,P(
L,t(Pt(t,p
PPLPLPPL
tpPtpt
L,p,PLt,(,
PP$,P(
,(PL,,
L,P(t
t(tL,(P,(P
,L,t(t,p,t
,t(t,p,p,t
L$,$,
PLPL,(P,(
,LP,p,p,H
,PL,t(t,p,
t(t,p,t(t(
ttLtPtPLH,
,L,$P
,,L,t(t
PL,PPL,,(P
,L,$,,L,
P,L,,L,P(t
,L,PLPPLPP
LPp,tLPPLP
ptPp,
,L,,LP
P(t(,LPP(P
P(,$,L,L
H,L,LP,L,t
(t,p,P(t,p
,P(tt,tLtt
ptPpPP
L,,LPP(H
tPLPP(P,
(P,(P,L,$
t(t,pPPL,P
(t(t,t(t,p
,tLtPpPp,t
LtPtPpt,p
P,L,P(
Pt,L,P(PP
(P($,(P,(P
(P,,LPPLP$
t(t(,PLPtL
PPLPLPtLPP
pt(tPp,
$,L,t
(,LPLP,p,P
,(t$,t(P
t,PLPLP,
(P,(tPLPPL
P,(tPp,
,t(t(tPpP
PP(tPPLPP(
PPL,,L,$,
,p,p,HP,Lt
,(t,L,,L,t
LPLPPptPtP
LPt(t,L,P(
t,L$,,(,
P,p,P(PL,,
(P,L,,L,t(
LPLPp,t(t,
p,pPPLP
P,p,P(P,
p,,LtL,
PL,PLPPL,p
,p,tPL,tLt
,p,p,PLPP
P(PLt(t,p,
,L,P(
,P,LP
,p,P(,P(
P,(P,$PPLt
LPPLP,p,tP
tLPt(
L$,P(
t,,LPt(P,L
P(,LPLP
,LPP(H,(
PPLP,LPL,t
Lt,L,tp,pP
P(,(P(t,p
,,LPP(P(
(P,,$,LPPp
,t(PLP,(P,
L$t(,tL,pP
t(tPp,t(,p
tP(P,p,,L
,,(P$P(P
tP$,P
(,L,LPPL,P
t(t,pP
t(PP(
PPpPPLtt,P
,(,(t,p,t
LPPLP,(,$
,P,,L
,PLP,PPLPP
(,P(tPLPPL
PpPt(,
(tLPPLP
P,p,t(PP(P
,$PP(P(t,p
,t(,L
LP,LPL,
,P(P(
PPLtt
t,p,PLtP
(t,(P,($
$,P(,
L,P(,
t(,L,,pt,L
PPLP,p,P,t
(t,pPPpt,t
$,$,(
,(PPLPp,,P
PPL,,LPP,
,p,,LPPp,t
(PPLPLPPLt
PpPPLPLP
LP(,P(,P,
P,(,p
P(P(PPLPPU
TP(t,LPLPP
LPPLPPLPLP
$,(,LPL
,p,t(P,L
,,L,,
(P(PPL,PL,
LP,L,t(PP(
,PLt,t,p,t
(t,p,tPt(t
P(P,PLP,,P
$,P(HPL
L$,$P
(P,P,(,t
(t,LttLP,p
Pp,t(tPp,t
(PLt,LP
t(t(,t(
,(P,p,p
P(P,(P,L,p
,P(PP(P,(t
,p,p,t(t,L
PPLPLt,pPP
(P(P$
$L,P(P
HPPpP,t,
p,PLP(
,LPP(P
P,pPt(t,p,
t,t(t,p
t(,,(
PLPH(t,p,,
HPL,,L,,(t
,p,P(t(PPL
PPp,t(t(t,
(,P$,
P,p$,L,$,
p,,t(P,L,
LPPp,P(P,(
t,(,P,t(t,
pPt(tLt,p,
,$,,p,(
P(,P(,(P(P
,$,$P
,LP(PPL,PH
,L,,pPPLP,
(P,LPL,,p,
t(t,t,p,t(
P,t(P
tLt,tpPt(t
LP$,$
(,L,L,
P,Pp,t(
,(P$,LPP
LP(t,(t,p,
p,t,p,p,t(
P,p,p,L,P(
Pp,P,$,$,
(,P,(,P
tP(P(P(t
p,P,L,,PLP
LPLPPp,t
PP$,t(
,$P$$
$tLP(
L,P(tPLP
H,LPtL
P(t,t(P
L,t(P,
$,PL,t(tP(
P,H,P(t
LP,LHPLPLP
,L,,PP(
H,$,,L,
LtPPtLPPpt
PLPtLttLtL
tLt,pPPLtP
t(t(t,LP,
,,L,,(
P,L,P(PPLP
,(P,L,(tP(
P,LPLP
(t(t,P(P(,
P(t,$
t(P(PPL,t(
t,p,t(,t(t
(PP(P,L,P
t(tLPPLPt(
t,p,p,t(t,
t,p,tLPp,(
P(P,L,
($tLtp,
tp,PP(P(P,
(,L,t
P(,P,pPLPL
,PLP,
,P(P,(,t(t
LP,(,L,H,
,L,,(P,(P
t,p,t(t,p
t,pPP,p,p,
PL,tP
,(P,,$,
t,(P,p,
PPLP,L,(H,
,PLPH,p,p,
t(P,H
(,L,L
P(,P(P,L,L
PP,L,P
,L,P(,P,
,t,p,,LPPL
PLt(t(PLPL
t(t(t,
,(t,(P(,PL
t(tpH,(P,L
,L,P(P,p,P
(t,t(PPLPP
,L,LPtp
(tt(t,L,H,
(PLP(,t(t,
HP,LP$P
tH,L,P
tPp,tp,
tLtLP
,L,t$,L,
Pp,t(P,(,p
,,L,,p,PLt
(P(,t(PLt(
t(t,p,t
pt,(P
LPpPPpttp,
,P,(,L,$Pp
,p,tpH,L
,,p,,L,,pP
P,p,t(P,
t(t,p,,(
tPpttLtt(P
PLPtLtPpPp
,$,L,L,P(P
L,LPL
,P,(,pPt,p
Pt,p,P(,L
tp,,L,L,p,
t(t,p,P(t,
p,,pP
,t(tPLtL
t,tLttpPP
P(P,L,,(
L,(PH,p,p,
pPL,P(,p,P
(t,p,t(,PL
PPL,P
p,$,L
P(tLPPL
PpPHtt(
L,(,P(
,P(P,L,
,PLP,L
,LP,L
Ht,H,P(,P,
P(t,L,$,p,
t(t,LP,(P,
p,t(t(P
ptPLPt,PLt
L,PL,LH,(P
$P(t,L,(
t(t(t,pP
P(,P(P(,,p
(P,(t
H,L,PLP,(t
$ptPptPL
P,L,P
(P$,P(,P,L
,PL,p
P$,L$,
Ptt(,L,,(P
t(,PLP(
$,L,p,P(,P
(t(PLP
PPpt(
,(P,L,L,LP
L,$P,
P,(t,P
(,$,PLPLHP
LPp,P,p
L,t(P,L,,t
(P,(PPL,t(
t,PLP,
Pp,$,,L
H,P(,P(PP
P(,(P(P,
t,pPHPt(Pp
PL,,p
,(P(,t(P,
,PLP(PLPP(
$,,L,$,
,P(,$(,P(P
,P(P,H,L
PLPtLPLP,,
P(P,L,,L,
,P(t,L,t(t
L,,PL,P(P
P(,L,
P,L,,L
,$,L,L
,PPL,H,t,p
,t(,,L,t(
L,P(t,(,L,
tPLPPLPlt(
,L,(t,LP
,(P(P,p,t(
t,p,(P(
,L,P(,P(P(
,t,L,L,L,P
$L,,(PLP$t
,(P,L,P,(t
pPPLtPPL
,(P,(,PL
p,t(t,p
,,P(tP(,,L
P(P(,L,
(,P(,H
,p,t,p,,(t
,P(t,P,(P,
t(P$(,L
t(PPLPPp
t(P(P,p,P
(,(PLP
LPPLP(PLPP
(t,L,
(P($P
,L,,$,
$,(P(P,L,
p,L,,L
,LPLPP(tLP
P,H,P(
P$tPL
PLttLt,p,,
L,t(t,P(t
t(t,L,t,
(PP(P,LPP
t,L,,L
$,p,t(,PHP
,(,p,($PLP
tLtt,p,t,p
PL,,(t
PP(,t(P,pP
L,p,t(P,p,
L,,$P
p,P(,L
L,L,(t
tPLPPLP,
$,L,L,P$,P
(H,,L,(PLP
LPLP,L,t
,t(P,p,P(,
tLP,,p,P(P
PL,,p,
P$,LPP,$P
P,(,LP,P
LP,(P,p
$,L,H
,P$,HPP
t(P(,t
(PPLPPLPLP
LP,p,t(t,p
,$,$,(
,P,(P,$P($
,$,(,LP(P(
,LPP,L
,L,t(t,LPL
P,(P,L$
t,P$,$,$P
(PLP(t(P,p
PH,LP(t,P(
,P(PPL,P(P
p,P(t
P,L,(
t,P$P(,t
L,,p,p,(,L
,,L,P(P,
(t,p,t($
p,P(,(P,(
,P(P,,
t(P,p
L,(,PLPPLP
PLt(t(t,p,
,LPPLPPLP
,PLP(P
P(,,L,
t,L,P,PLP,
p,tLPLt,p,
(P,L,t(
P,(P,L,P,(
$,(t(tLPH,
L,L,t,PLPP
LPPLP,t(t,
LP,p,P(PPL
(P($P(
L$,$,
(P,p,p,L,,
(P(P,p,,L,
tH,p,t(P,L
P,(,(P
P(t,H,p
,,p,P(P(P,
(t(tPLPLPP
LPPLPPLPPL
($,(,
P(t,(,
,P,(,P(P(P
,(P,LPt(t(
PP(tPL,P
,,p,P,L,
(P,(P,P
(,L,,p,p,P
(P,LPLPPpP
,t(PPLPP(P
PLPPLPPLPP
($P($
$P,L,(P$
,L,PH,L,p,
L,P(,
LPPLPP(t,t
,Lt,LPLP
,L,L,L,(P,
L,LPp,t(P
P,p,p,t(t,
(P,,PLPPLT
Lt,LPPLPPp
PPLt,
P(,L,$,L
,,L,P
,L,,P(t
LP(,P,(t,(
LP,L,,
pPPLPLtPpP
$,L,,$P
P,(,PPLP
(tLPHP
PLPP(HPLPL
PPLPtt,p,p
,tp,tLPPL,
t(t,p
,L,L,P,L,
p,P(t,(PLP
tL,PLPL
PPLPL,LP$t
$,(,L,L,
(P,L,L
pPPLPP(,
p,L,t(,t(P
PL,t(t,p,
,(P,$
p,P,L,p
,L,,P(P,,P
LPPLP,p,
PLPtPL
t,HLPPL
LPPp,l,L
,t,,(t,p,p
,tPt(tt(t,
p,P(t,L,t
,$P,L
p,L,(P(
,,L,p,t(t,
L,PLt(t(P(
t,p$PL
(P(,P(t,
ptPPLPLt(t
p,PPp,,p,,
p,tPP
L,p,t(t,p,
tLt,p,t(
L,PP$
P(PPL,,H
(P,L,t(P,p
,P(PPH,tLt
tLPLP,l
P(,$,P
PPLPLP
pt,L,,L,L,
,p,P(,(PLP
PLPPLP,(P,
p,t(t
L$,(H,$,L,
PPLPL,,t(t
,L,t(tPLPP
LPtLP,t(t,
P(P(,
P(P(,P(,
PLPH,
p,tptPP,(P
,L,,t,p,P(
t(P,,P(,PL
,tLt,p,t(P
(,P(,P
P$,P(,(t
L$,L,$,(P
p$,(P,(
t,LPt(tPLH
(,$,,LH
,pPLPP
,(P,p,P,t(
P(P,LPP(P
p,t(t,L
L$P(,P(,L
,,P(t,P,pP
,L,,p
p,t(PPLt,L
PPp,P(tLPP
LPLPP
P(,P(P(P(P
P(t,t$t
H,t(t,LP
LtpP(PP(P,
(t(P,p,PLP
(P(t,p,t(t
PL,,p,,L,
$,L$,$,
(P,(PP
,P,(P(
L,,(P(P
P,LPP(,t
(t,LPpHPt
,t(t(
P,($P(P
,(P,,L,Pp,
p,LPLPLPt(
PPHt,(,t(P
,(P,,PLPPL
,(P,,PL
PPLPtp,,LP
P,L$,
L,P(t$,(t,
L,(,,L,t(t
PLP,(,Ht(t
(t(t,
P,p,P
,L$,L,L,pH
PPHt(
,p,t,LP,L
,t(P,pPLPP
LPPt,p,p,t
(,t(tPLPtp
t(,,L,(P$
L,L,,L,P(H
,P(,,P
(,P(,
,LPP(tPLPP
LP,LPP(,t
t(tPL,p,t(
(,P(,$P
(P,$Pp,tL
tp,PLP,tPL
PLPLPPLPP(
t,(PLPPLPP
LPLPLPPL,t
(tPLPt(PPp
,L,,$,
,,$,$(P
,(,,P(P,L,
t(P,L,
P(P(P,P(P,
LPP(,t(t(t
,pPHt,pt,(
L,,(H
,L$,P,(P,(
P,(tp,t(t,
p,t(tPLPLP
tPpP,LPt(,
P(t,PPLPPL
PLtt,PLtt(
t,LPP(tPp,
,L,L,L,
PLP(P,(,
P(,,P(,L,t
(t,t(t(t,p
,t(t(P,LP(
t,p,Ltt(t(
$,L,P(P
HtHPtp,PLP
PLPPLPLPP
p,,LPP(P,p
,t(PLP,p,t
,t(PLP,LPt
p,t(PPLPPL
(,L,$,$,L
L,PLP(P(,p
,t(t(t(t(t
,p,t(P,t,p
PHt(PP
P(,L,(P,p$
P,pPPt(PPL
PPLPPLt,lP
LPP(t,p,t(
tLPPp,tLP(
tLP,pPPLPP
LPP(PLPP
L,HP,
L,P(tPLP
L,t(P,$t,$
P,LPP
,p,P(PPLPL
tPL,t(l,PP
LPt(t,(P
P(P,$,
P$,L,
tPL,t(t,L,
(t(PPL,L,,
pPt(PP(t,
,pPL,tLt,P
Pp,tLPPLPP
P,$,$
P,p,,P(
P(,P(,P
(t,(P(t,LP
,(t,pPP
LPP(PPLPP(
p,(,t(PP
LPLPL
P(,,($,
,(P($$P,(P
$,L$tLPL
LPHPLH,p,t
,LPt(,(PPL
p,t(P,LP
PH,PL
(t(tPLPPLP
PLPLP(PP
(,$$,,
,L,PP(P
,L,P(
P,(P,(P,(,
t(PPLPP(Pt
P(PPLP
PPLPPLHP
LPt(P
(,$P$
P,tLP
L,,p,t,lPL
,p,,p,tP,(
t,LPP(PPLP
PLt,p,pPLP
LPPLPPLPPL
P,0t,L,
,L,L,
P$P,L,,p
P$,L,L,P(P
,p,P,P($,(
PPL,P(tPLP
,(t,LPP(,p
t(t,p$
,p,PL
,t(t,L
,L,$,
LPLPLHt(PP
L,PLPL,t(,
PLP(P,(
,t(P,(PPp,
L,t,H,tLPP
LPPL,P(,t(
P,(PP
$,LPL,P(P
(PPL,,L,,L
,(t,L,PLP
PLPPLPLPP(
P,(P,($,(P
(ttPL,tp,H
,L,PLl,t,p
,pHPLP
,,L,L,
t(tptt(t
PLHPL,t(P(
P,p,P(P,(t
PLPp,t
(PPLPPpttL
Pt(t,p,PL
,P($,
,,LH,L,,(P
(P(t,LP
PLP,(P,,p,
P(,LPLPptP
LP(,P
LPLPHt(
,p,t$PLP,
H,p,t(lPp,
p,pH,,L,H,
,t(tPL
(P,,Pp,t(t
,(P,L,t(PP
LPPLtPLPPL
,tLPPLPPLt
$,Pp,H
p,P(P(,L$
,L,,L,P(P,
t,p,t(
t,$,L,
L,LPP,LH,L
,,tH,t(t,p
PPHt(,P,pH
,pt,p,t(lP
LP,(t,
PLPLHPPL
LPPtLP,p,P
(tpPLP
,(PL,t(PP(
P,LPP(tPLP
PpPtLtPLPt
(t,pPtLPPL
$,$,$,L
,$,P(PL
p,P(,PL,
,(t,p,t(tP
p,t(P,LP$,
LP$,L,,P(t
t,L,L,t
(PPL,,L,,H
t(l,tLt,Lt
PL,PP
,p,tLPP
Pl,p,tH,t(
tp,pPpHPpH
PLt$PLPP,H
,(P,L,(P(,
P(,t(P,(PP
LPPL,t(ttL
P,pt,pt,p,
t(PPLPP(
$,$,LPP(,P
(P(,L,,(PP
L,t(P,p
PP(PPL,,p,
L,L,,L,t
LPP(tPL,,L
Ppt(t(P,pt
,p,p,LPPH,
P(t,p,t(PP
LPtLtp,Ppt
PpPtPp,
(t,ptp,pt(
tHPtH,t(tP
LPPLPLPPL,
L,t(,$,t(P
,p,P(t,L,t
(t,p,tpPPL
PPptPpPPLP
PLPPp,P(P
P,L,L,
L$,(P$,
L$,L,$,P(,
P(P,L,t
p,t(P,p,,(
t,p,PPL,,L
,,(tPP(t(,
P(PPLPLPPL
P,(PPLH
tLPPLt$
tLt,pP
(P(t,p,t,p
HtPpt
,p,t,p,t(t
p,tpPLPHPL
PLPPLtL,,L
,P(P(P,p,P
(t,p,,L,P(
tPLPtLPt(t
PLPtLPPLPP
LtPLPP
$$,$,
,P(P(,L
,P(,P(P,LP
p,t(t,L,t
(PPL,t(P,p
,p,L,
P(P(,(PPLP
,p,p,,p,PL
PPL,PL,P,t
t(tLt(H
,p,LPPt(t
PLHPp,pPt,
p,t(t,l,
t(tpPL
P,pPPL
LPPLPPLt,H
L,t(P
p,t(t,p,,L
,,p,t(t,p,
tLtPpttLPt
Ltp,tPLPPL
($,P(,(t
,(,L,,t
PL,,p,P(
PPL,t(t,L,
,H,LP,(t
P,P(P,L,,
L,,t,p,PLP
,LPPL,t
t,p,l,t(tP
LPPt(t(
,l,p,p
,tLtPLPPp,
,p,t(lP
tLPPLHP
p,ttLPPpt,
P(P(P,
,L,p,PL,,p
t,L,,p,t(t
,p,tLPPLPP
LPpt,p,
(P,L,
(P(,P$
P$,L,L
,,L,P(PPL,
tLt,(t,L,,
p,P(,P(
,,L,P(P(P,
(PPL,,L,P(
PP,,LPt(tL
PPLPLt(P
(P(t,p,t(t
,p,t(t,LPL
PHPLPtLt,p
LPp,t(t,p,
LPPLtLP,L,
,(PPL,,(PL
P,LH,L,P
Pp$,L,t(t,
L,t(t,pPPL
PLPLPLP,p,
P,$P(
($,(t,L,,(
t,(PPL,P(P
PL,,pP,p,,
LPP(P(Px,P
(,,L,,L,p,
P(,tLPP(t,
p,t(P,L,L
P(HP,p,l,
,,L,pPtPPL
PPLPLPPtLt
PpPHPp,pHt
(P,LPLPPLP
L,t,p,
,,L$,P(
,,L,P,,
LPPLPPL,P(
t(P,LP
P(tPp,tp,P
H,t(t,LPPL
,$P$P(P
L,,P(P,,L,
P(P,LPP(P,
p,P(PP(t,p
PL,,(P,L,
,p,$,P(,LP
P(P,p,P
(,t(P,L,t
P,p,p,t(P,
,p,p,t(tpP
LPPLPLPPLt
,tLtLtp,HP
p,PHPPLPLt
$PPLPHPPL,
LtPLPPL,p,
(P,L,,P(P,
(P(P,t(,L,
,p,tLPP(PP
(PPLPPLPPL
PP(PPLPPLt
,p,tLPtLP
P(,,L
L,,(t,(
P(,,p,P(,P
PP(tPL,P(
PPLPP(PL,,
L,P,,
L,(P(t(P,L
,,p,t
P,,p,P($,H
,p,t,
PLPt(t,p
(tPPtpP,pP
LHt(t,pPpt
P(t,pPHP(t
LP(,,L,
PP(P(,LP,p
,t(,PL,P(P
PL,PLPPLPP
LPPLPtL,PL
PPLPP(tP
,$,$,$
$P$(P
,L,,($P
,L,P,$,L,
P(P,(P,L,
PPLP,(
t,(P,(P
,P,L,t(,L$
(P,,L
,t(PPLP,(P
L,PP(,LH,(
,L,L,PL,p,
PPLPL
PPL,t,LtLP
LH,p,p,t,p
PL,p,t(t,H
,tLt,p,,(,
p,,P(P,L
PL,(P$PLPP
(P,(P,L,P(
$PL,PL,P(P
Pp,t(PPLPt
LPLPPt(tPL
P,L,(,P,t
tP(P,L,P
LP,L,L,$,L
,L,,(P(t
H,,L$,L$,P
LPP(P,(PH,
p,L,,L,P
L,H,lP
H,t(t(t,tL
H,p,pP(PP
PLHPP
,t,tLt(t,t
P,L,P(
t,(P(PPLPP
,,HP,L,P(t
,(t,LPP(,P
(PPL,PL
,t(t,pPP(t
t,p,p,t(t
p$,,L
P(,p,(,PHP
(P(PP,L,LP
,LPP(,P
(,P(PP
P(,PL
P,(P(
,L,LPPLP,L
PPL,PL
,L,LP(t
PLPLPt
P(t(PPLP
Lt,p,p,t,p
,t(PL,
PLPLPH,(,
L,P(t,L,t,
Pp,L,,(
,p,t,L,LPt
PL,P(t,(PP
LPPLPPLPPp
t,p,tLx,p,
$$,$,
L,,(P
,PLP,L,,LP
P(,p,,(P,P
(,LPP(,P(P
,(,(P,$,$,
,LPP(,P
(P,L,PL,t(
(t(PPL,PPL
,p,t(t
(t,p,t,p,p
,p,pPtLPLt
t(t,H,t
L,,p,,p,L,
p,t(P
p,t,L
t(,P,
L,tL,tLtPL
PPLPPp
$L,,$,(P,
,$,L,P
(P,P(,P(
,P(,,L,P,L
P(P(PL,,L
,P(,,L,L,P
,L,t(t,L,,
p,P(P,t,p
t,(t,H,L
,L,($,,
PLHPP
t,pPt
(PtHP(t(t(
t,L,t(P,
p,t,p,,L,P
(,P(PPL,,p
,t,P(t
tL,p,t(tt
(t,LPtLPt(
t,p,t(
$,$,,L
,,P(P,P(PP
,$,(P
P,L,L,P(,
P(P(P,,
p,H,P(P,L,
P(P,L,P
,$,,$,
(,t(P,L,Pp
,t(t,p,L,P
L,p,P,(P,H
,,L,t(P
p,pPt
p,t(P,p,,L
t,P,H,t
(t,(PP
p,L,P(PPL
,PLPPL,P(P
t(t(t
L,,p,tL,t(
,PLtPLPPpP
PLPPLPPLt,
H,P(P,
,L$,L,L
P(,P(,t,(P
p,PLP
,(,,L,,L,,
t(P,L,,L
PL,PLt
(t,L,H,(PL
P,(t,L,t(P
(t,L,p,P
(P,p,P(t,(
t,L,t(t,L,
p,t(,PLPP
t,p,PPLPPL
PPp,,p,t(P
PLPP(P,H,t
(P,(PPp
,t(tt(PPLP
PLPPLPt(t,
$,P(,,L,
(P,(,P(P(,
P(,L,
L,,(,P(P
P,L,,LPPLP
PL,PL,P,,L
,t(,P(,t(P
,p,,LP,H,L
,LPP(t(P,(
P,(P,(P,p,
t(P,Lt(PPL
,PLP,Lt,p,
(t(t,p
,p,,L,PL,t
(P(t(P(t,L
PP(,PL,t(,
t(tPLPPLt,
ptP(tPptPp
$,,(,L$,
(P,L,P(,L,
P(P,$P,
H,p,L,P,L,
p,,L,L
t(P,(P,
(P,(P,L,
PPL,t(HP(t
(PP(P,p,t(
,(t,LPt(P,
p,,H,LP
p,t(PPLPPL
P,L,t(P,Ht
(t,LP,LP,p
,,P(,,p,P(
t,L,P(t,p,
P(P,H,P(PP
L,P(PPL,,(
PPLPPLPPLP
t(t,ptP(tP
,$$,$
,L,(,P(P
,(P,(,P(
,,L,,L,
,L,,$,
,,L,,L
,$,$,(P,(P
PL,,($,(,P
LP,p,P(,PL
P(,t(P,p,t
t,L,P
(,P(P,L,P
,pPPLPPLPP
(,t(PP(PLP
P,L,,(
P,(P(t,L,,
LPPLPPLPP(
,t(P,(,P(,
,p,,p,,L,P
LPPLPPLt,p
Pt(t,LPPLt
,pPtL
$,$,$
P(P,L,
P(P,L,P
,L,P(
,L,t(P,
L,P(P,H,P
$P,L,P(P,L
,P(P,p,t(t
,L,$,P(t,L
,t(t,p,t(P
,p,t(P,pPP
LP,L,P(P,p
,P(P,L,PLP
P$t,p,PLPP
L,P(PH,t(t
t,L,t
(PPL,PLP,L
,P(PPL,P(P
PLPP(P,pPP
Lt,p,tLtPp
PP(t,p,t
p626-2
ftsTitleOverride
Classicism in Literature (page 2)
ftsTitle
Alexander Pope's Essay on Man (1732-34) is a philosophical poem that sets out to demonstrate the perfection of God's scheme for the universe. Illustrated here are the frontispiece and title-page of a five-language edition of the poem published in Strasbourg in 1772. Pope was the first English poet to enjoy international fame during his own lifetime. His European reputation is reflected in the flattering couplet in German at the foot of the frontispiece.
Classicism in Literature (2 of 2)
English Restoration drama
Exiled in France during the years of Cromwell's Protectorate, Charles II and many of his court brought back a taste for French theater to England in 1660. This included the use of actresses to play women's parts, an innovation that introduced new possibilities for the exploration of sexual relationships into drama.
Essentially Restoration comedy is a mocking view of the manners of London society. Smart rakes and fops, sexually voracious wives and tedious, jealous husbands are the chief players in a drama of sexual intrigue, often with money as the motive. The plots are complicated, the style fast, witty, and at times very bawdy.
The Country Wife (1675) by William Wycherley (1641-1715) makes hilarious use of ribald innuendo, and is fiercely satirical in its presentation of a society so dedicated to pleasure that it has lost touch with real human values. His last play, The Plain Dealer (1676), is based on, but radically reworked from, Moli
re's The Misanthrope.
A more restrained and elegant approach to social satire is found in the plays of William Congreve (1670-1729). His comedy of deception, The Way of The World (1700), is distinguished by brilliant dialogue and makes serious points about the social pressures on love and marriage. Other notable writers of comedies include Sir John Vanbrugh (1664-1726) and George Farquhar (1678-1707).
This tradition of social comedy continued in milder form into the 18th century with Richard Sheridan (1751-1816) - with plays such as The Rivals (1775) - into the 19th century with Oscar Wilde and into the 20th century with Noel Coward.
Elevated heroic tragedies also played in the Restoration theater. Influenced by French tragedies, these plays involved heroes caught in stock situations of conflicting loyalties. The rhetoric and strict form of classical tragedy never became popular in England, although the poet and dramatist John Dryden (1631-1700) did manage a successful adaptation of Shakespeare in the blank-verse play All for Love (1678), where he squeezed the story of Antony and Cleopatra within the limits of the unities with some success.
The Augustan Age
Dryden was altogether more successful as a poet, mastering the ode and, in the allegorical poem Absalom and Achitophel (1681), writing some of the keenest satire in the English language. (Hugely inventive prose satire is also found in the works of Jonathan Swift. The fifty or so years following Dryden's death are named after the Roman Emperor Augustus, under whom poets such as Virgil and Horace flourished. The natural successor to Dryden was Alexander Pope (1688-1744). Dryden had translated some of Juvenal's satire using the heroic couplet to stinging effect. Pope began by writing pastoral verse and later translated Homer into formal English. But like Dryden he was most effective as a satirist, writing in mock-heroic vein in The Rape of the Lock (1712-14), and achieving a wicked elegance in his great attack on literary mediocrity, the Dunciad (1728-43). In his Essay on Criticism (1711) he laid down the rules for writing in the neoclassical manner with an emphasis on a high degree of polish and a harmony of style and sense.
Another aspect of 18th-century poetry, and one visible in early Pope, is a taste for natural description, meditation and melancholy introspection. Oliver Goldsmith's (?1730-74) The Deserted Village (1770) laments a lost golden age of English village life, despoiled by the effects of the enclosures. This introspective tendency becomes more noticeable in the poetry of Thomas Gray (1716-71), who produced little but wrote with great care, perfecting the Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) over ten years. Of one part of it Dr Johnson said that while he had seen the ideas nowhere else, 'he that reads them here persuades himself that he has always felt them'. Although the poem is of the 18th century in its language, its mood of wistfulness and gloom looks forward to the early Romantics.
Many Neoclassical writers described landscape either in idealized, pastoral terms, or in terms of the picturesque. But by the end of the 18th century poets such as George Crabbe (1754-1832) were focusing on the harsh realities of the lives of the poor and contrasting these with the artificiality of pastoral verse.
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* ROMANTICISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
,P($t
$(,H,$
H,PLt
($P$P
$,L,(t$
$,P,L
$H$$$H
$$$,tx
P($TP
]]]99
9U9-9
1U1T1
TUTU0,
(tPLP
LH,$t,
$P$x,
$$,($
P$$0$
$,$,LP$
,$$tP
UPyPy
TyUyyy
P(t1t
1t1TP
]t-L0
-,Ut1
LUTyy
TP]T1
,u\yt
,u0y,UyT
]U,]L,
,-UyP$1PQU
$P$Px
t1P(Q
t11UUTPuTtyTyT
,U,UT
P($t0$
UP,py
UyUPL
$,$Pp
tUxPuU
Py,t(
x]MTP
$$P,L
tU1LU
H,L$yP
y-y1tU
y0P(t
$1t)t]
$$HPP
yPU8P
,TyPu(PUy
-x1Q0
,U-P0u
$P(,u
$$:yx,
MUx-x
,Lu1$x
U0y,U
,tUUP
$$$,L,
y-PLP
PM,xU
,(t,t
y,L]-
,yyPPUt
p,)Tuy0
-t1QL
1U,y,MQP$,Q,
UxU,xU
,$$P$
L]UPU$P
yP$9t10y]y]yUU0
$PqPt
x,$1xy
u0$Q)x
0,)\U
,]TU,Q
Pyl1PP
xUxt]yP]tt,M
uLPLQ,M,($1,Q
,yTU00t(
($,Q(H
y,9P$
xUt]P(
PLUuPp
UT-,1
UxUxx
UPPy0
]0PT]y0
ytUx]x
$,(PP
Uy1yTyU
$,(HP
$,$$PP
,$$,p
yy1x]
8Q0UY1yU
UxyUT
Uy]yTy
xUxyU
yTQxy,t1tt,T-t
tQPyUt]
P(,$t(x
pUtQtUuxU
yUyxUx
$,LPtT
]y]TUU01x11
xUyT1xUyTyuq
,$$,t
tUxuUtLUT
xuTtyQxU
QytUtPxy,uxQyT
y,p1,T1T,y9uTy,
UU1TU0UTyUT
$,$,,
u($Pt,
$U1y1
$,(PL
$UPQxT
]UTU,19x1Q0
UyUy]
t-Uz$
]y]y1ya
,U1,,p-T
y1x,H
pU]-,y
T^U$P
1-xUyx
,UT^,
xPTTuPy8
HP(PPxH
t\y1t
]U\U0
TP-TQ\t
UuyxUQT
UP1y0y1
QxU]P9p
U]xPyTyyUyx
y,PLt(UHPp-pTPPyT]
$PPyxU
UP1,P1-UT
$TyPL0x1tU
$PPt-
U,UPU,Py
]P-xyT
yU1]y
xyTP,
t$UQT
,U-),T,
010yyT-yT
$$$x-$
yTy1,
Y01U]
,yTyUy
(,UPP,
(y,TUt
y0Ux,
u$,HuPq
$HL$T$
$PPp,
t,p,H
yQtLu
H$PL$
P-]L1
$UtUT
P$PL,
,$,$tH,L
QT]xUUy,U0x
,$P$,p,
$$$,p
($P(PP
TPUPL
PH,,p
,L$,u
Y]TPU
($PPLP
$,LPp
0yUyy
HPL,tT
,L$P(P
H,$L,$,
PPP(P
y]yUx
UyyyU
]xyUy
Uy]yUy1U
$tLtx
$,L$,p,
t(tPP(
$P$P(t(
PP(P(P
H,ltLt
,PLtt
H,pPt
(P(t,L,P(
]]0,UP
,PLP,
LPp$,$
,p,tP
]yYy]
,L,pPp
P,P(P(tT
U]y1yU
$,P,L,t(
H(P,p,
^xUy]
]U,y,
(,PP(tP
P]L]t
$,p,pPP
y0yyT1
$,$,$PL
U0,y0
(,pP$,x
UUtUyx
yUTUy
,LPp,$
UUUy0
PPLtPP
,L,P(tL$
t(tPp,
(-PUxP
P$0t,
UyP1$T
xy0yU
P($PptT
Ty]y]u
L,PPt
Uxy-0
p,PLtL
t(t,pP,
yfxUx
$t,p,tP
YL,0,x
]UYy]y
L$,p,pP
u(],1
P(PLP,xP
$,P(t,
t(,LP
p,PPL
$,LPLPt0$
L,PPptp,
P,Lt(PPP
TyP1]U
$,(P(tPL
t,PLtL
$t(tLt,,
L,t(,tLx
,LPtLPx
,$,p,tPpP
P(P,p,p
xUPUP
(P,(tP
,(P,xp
,L,t(t,
x10P1
,$PPLPxP
xyPy1
L$,,L
,LPPMP
,p,t(P
xPx,,
0U,U,
,$,P(
yTUU1
]U-1U1
1U]U1U,U1x
]]]Ux1x01yT1
,yTyUP-xT
t(y,xUP,LTyTy
x,P(tT
LHPtTtP
,p,,(QPP$PtPPLP,$,P,PMtPPptLtPtt,L
P(PHP
PPtHH
$$P,$,$,
tLPHPpPp
LH,p,
$,$,$$,LPL,P$,
-1111x
QUPUUT-,U1
tLtH$
p628-1
ftsTitleOverride
The Beginnings of the Novel (page 1)
ftsTitle
Don Quixote with his companion Sancho Panza, painted by the 19th-century French artist Honoru Daumier. Cervantes's tale of the often absurd adventures of Don Quixote - a poor gentleman of La Mancha whose brain is addled by excessive reading of tales of chivalry - and his more earthy and pragmatic servant Sancho Panza, presents a vivid picture of all levels of Spanish society.
The Beginnings of the Novel (1 of 2)
In the early 18th century, a relatively new form, the novel - an extended prose narrative treating in a realistic manner the story of fictional individuals within a recognizable social context - achieved popularity with a wide audience and came to be seen as a vehicle for serious literary expression.
Up to the 16th century the dominant literary mode had been verse, often of an elevated character and dealing with high-born heroes and heroines. Even in antiquity, however, there had also been examples of prose fiction treating less exalted themes - works such as the Satyricon of Petronius and The Golden Ass of Apuleius. The Italian novella - a type of short tale of a humorous nature found in Boccaccio's Decameron and elsewhere lent its name to the more extended prose fictions of Defoe, Richardson and Fielding.
A number of important strands can be discerned in the early novel. Some novels show a strong emphasis on realism - the representation of life as it is. The use of first-person narrative creates an impression that authentic experience is being described, underpinning the illusion of reality. Epistolary novels - written in the form of letters - were intended to enhance this illusion, by allowing the intimate recounting of recently lived experience. But the most important early influence on the development of the novel was the tradition of the picaresque.
The picaresque novel
The term picaresque derives from the Spanish word picaro, meaning a wily rogue. Picaresque tales appeared in Spain in the 16th century and typically relate the adventures of rascally servants who defraud their social superiors before repenting their ways. Simplicissimus (1669), by the German J.J.C. von Grimmelshausen (c. 1621-76), was closely modeled on the Spanish picaresque novel and presents a vivid social picture of a Germany torn apart by the Thirty Years War.
A variation on the picaresque theme is found in Don Quixote (1615), by the Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616). In what is widely regarded as the first true novel, the impossible idealism of the chivalric knight Don Quixote is contrasted with the earthy pragmatism of his servant Sancho Panza. By parodying the ballads and romances of chivalric literature Cervantes helped establish the humorous prose narrative as a serious literary genre.
The rise of the English novel
The works of the English writer Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) were influenced by the picaresque tradition and show a similar concern with low-life characters. The first-person narrative of Moll Flanders (1722) emphasizes the heroine's strong personality but also dwells on the social injustices that determine her colorful story. Defoe's most famous novel, Robinson Crusoe (1719), has a desert-island setting, but its shipwrecked hero proves to be a resolute defender of bourgeois values, re-creating in the wilderness the ordered world of 18th-century mercantile society.
The Irish clergyman Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) took the tale of the shipwrecked mariner into the realms of satirical fantasy in Gulliver's Travels (1726). Lemuel Gulliver's adventures take him to such fantastical locations as the island of Lilliput (inhabited by midgets) and Brobdingnag (peopled by giants). In the petty squabbles of their various inhabitants, Swift satirizes the intellectual pretentions and vanity of the philosophers, scientists and political and literary factions of the time.
Defoe's immediacy of expression and close recording of realistic detail is heightened in the novels of Samuel Richardson (1689-1761). Richardson employed the epistolary technique, allowing his characters to speak in their own private voices through letters that detail not just events but also the varied emotional and psychological responses of the characters to those events. His novel Pamela (1740-1) records the experiences of a young woman in domestic service who resists the lecherous advances of her unscrupulous employer. His later masterpiece Clarissa (1747-8) registers the psychological collapse of a young woman who is drugged and raped by the appropriately named rake, Lovelace. Novels such as Richardson's, in which extreme sensitivity is allied to true virtue, are sometimes known as novels of sentiment. But the highly emotional way in which Richardson's characters respond to life reflects a wider cult of feeling, or sensibility, that arose in Europe in the mid-18th century. The cult, which drew on philosophical beliefs in the innate goodness of man and prefigured Romanticism in its exalting of emotion, is also evident in the novels of Marivaux, in Fielding and Sterne, in the characters of Rousseau's novels and in Goethe's Sorrows of Young Werther.
The apparently easy moral distinctions of Richardson cannot be made in the case of the novels of Henry Fielding (1707-54). Tom Jones (1749) tells the adventures of a generous-hearted foundling who is almost cheated of his rightful inheritance by mean-spirited relations. By the end of the novel he regains his legitimate fortune and captures the heart of the virtuous heroine - but not before indulging in a variety of sexual escapades along the way. The style of the novel is graphic, ironic and often bawdy, and the account of Tom Jones's journeyings allows a wide-ranging view of English society of the period.
Tobias Smollett (1721-71) employed a similar technique to Fielding, although the incidents he relates are often sordid and violent, and his tone lacks Fielding's tolerance and humanity. In his masterpiece, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1741), he achieves a comic fusion of the methods of Fielding and Richardson, the novel recording the varied adventures of a traveling group through a series of vividly expressed letters.
Standing somewhat apart from the main realistic tradition of 18th-century fiction is The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy (1759-68), by the clergyman Laurence Sterne (1713-68). This original and idiosyncratic novel comprehensively mocks the conventions of the youthful novel form. The novel opens at the moment of the hero's conception and his birth is not described until well into the book, even then being interrupted by the overdue insertion of a Preface. Sterne constantly reminds readers of the unreality and illusion of fiction, indulging in abrupt time shifts, obscure philosophical speculation, typographical oddities such as blank pages and rows of asterisks, and at times abandoning any sense of coherent plot. Nothing comparable to Tristram Shandy appears in literature until the novels of James Joyce in the 20th century.
Illustration from Laurence Sterne's A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768). Based largely on Sterne's own journeys through Europe, the book is a gentle parody of the then fashionable works of travel.
The Beginnings of the Novel (2 of 2)
The novel in France
The psychological realism and acute analysis of character that were to become the hallmark of the 18th-century French novel are seen for the first time in a novel by Madame de la Fayette (1634-93). The Princess of Cleves (1678) forsakes the idealized pastoral settings of its predecessors to present a tragic tale of married life and the temptations of romantic love in the realistic setting of a French court.
Character and emotion receive yet closer analysis in the novels of Antoine-Francois (l'Abbu) Pruvost (1697-1763). Manon Lescaut (1731) is a first-person account of the mutually destructive passion of a refined but weak-willed nobleman and an alluring but amoral young woman. The novel celebrates passion with extraordinary intensity, most notably in the heroine's protracted death in the arms of her lover in the Louisiana desert.
The influence of the picaresque tradition is evident in two novels by Pierre Marivaux (1688-1763). The Life of Marianne (1731-41) and The Fortunate Peasant (1735) are first-person narratives whose heroes recount their upward progress in society. While both novels have elements of social realism strongly reminiscent of Defoe, their keynote is psychological analysis of motive and feeling. In the importance that they attach to emotion and intuition, and their rejection of authority and tradition in favor of simple morality and naturalness, Marivaux's novels, like Richardson's, look forward to the Romantic period. The cult of nature and simplicity is promoted most vigorously in the novels of Rousseau.
The Enlightenment thinker Voltaire (1694-1778) professed an aversion for the novel form, but worked in the related genre of the 'philosophical tale'. In Candide (1759), the most famous of these, the hero sees and suffers so much that he comes to reject the belief of his optimistic tutor, Dr Pangloss, that this is 'the best of all possible worlds'. He decides instead that the secret of happiness is to 'cultivate one's garden' - an intensely practical philosophy that rejects excessive idealism and convoluted metaphysics. Denis Diderot shared with Voltaire an enthusiasm for English culture. His novel Jacques the Fatalist (1773) - which marries the tradition of the picaresque novel to the philosophical tale - shows the influence of Sterne in its awareness of the artificiality of the novel form.
Acute analysis is applied to the domain of sexual psychology with consummate skill in Dangerous Liaisons (1782), a finely crafted epistolary novel by Choderlos de Laclos (1741-1803). The novel takes the form of an exchange of letters between two cynical aristocrats who use innocent youth as a pawn in their sexual and emotional power struggle. Whether it is seen as a satire on the emptiness and corruption of aristocratic society prior to the French Revolution or as an account of erotic psychology, Dangerous Liaisons is unquestionably a masterpiece.
In stark contrast is the idealized natural paradise depicted by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814) in Paul et Virginie (1787). The love of the two innocent children of the title flourishes on the idyllic island of Mauritius, until the intrusion of civilization leads to tragedy. The influence of dawning Romanticism - and particularly the notion that goodness and innocence reside only in the state of nature - can be discerned in this rich evocation of an exotic wilderness.
* Medieval Tales
* Classicism in Literature
* Romanticism
* Realism and Naturalism
* The Novel in 19th-century Britain
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
b b b
:^2^^^^
b_b^:^
2::^^ ^^b^2
^::^^
>:V:
b^
^^^^^
:^^^::
:2Y^^
^2^1V
1V1^2
:V::V1:
:^b^b^
bUb^^
f^b^::
^b:^^ ^^
^;^^
b^ ^
b b
:^_^^
^ :^:^_:
^::^b
^b_^ b
^^^ ^ b
b b
^:^^:
2^b: b ^
^ b b
U::^2
b b-b
^:Y^Y::
^::^^
b b
:2U:2^2:U:U:
21V:22^2
:V:2^:V:
1V:V:
^1V^22^22^2
V1V:U
:^2^^V:
2^:V1:V:^
:2^2^1^
^1V:12
:-2^2
2V:V::^:^2^
^^V2^
2^22^
:2Vb
: ::
1^2^:
2bV
1--:V
12^::
V: 2^:
1 :^:
:V::^2^2-
12Vb_:
::^ :
::^::^:
:^^^:
U:U:2
f^b :-
^ ^ b ^
^^22^:^:^::^^
V:U2U2
b^ b
: :2^:
::^^^
:V:V:
f_ b
::^:
^ ^ b
b :6^
:^2^::
U:1:U
^^:U2V:
V:V:U2
2: :^
::^2-
: :^^ : b
::V::
2:^^:^22
1V b f b^b^
2^::^:2
^^^^>:
::Vb^:2
6^:^^^
:V2^1
:^:2^
:^^:^
;^:^^:
6V2^Y2V
2^:^_
^1:^:
22:^^^2
b
^2-2-
^^:--
:^1^:
b :1
^:::U
V:::^:
:^^^:^^2
:^b^^
62^:2:
U: b
V2^^_ ^^
^^^V:2
:^:;:V::
b : b:^:^::Y
2^::^^^:2^:::^:^2:^::^:
: V 2
:2^2Y
^V:V:
V:^::V
2: :^^^:2:^:
: b
: b : ^ : b b b
^c^^::
b^:1^^:
>1V1V
b ^ b
:^^^b
^ ^^:
: ^ ^ :
b^-1
:^b b
^^:V
^2:V:
::^:^:^^^:
^^ :
12b 2
V1^:^
b b :^
^^b :
b^12b^
U:1V12
^ ^ b
b ^
1^:^:::V:
^ b^:^^
::VV2
:U2:1V1
b ^ b
2^2^^ ^: :
:V2^:1
b2U:
^:^:^
::^::1
_ b
^ ^ :^:^
^^b^ V
: ^^:
:^ ^b:
::::^^
VU^^:^^V:
:2^::
_^:^V:
^^^:^
2^2^:
::U:^b
b: b
V:^:2
:^2^::
-:^:^:
:^::V:
b^^^2-
: b 1^b 2
:^:V:
: b^:-
b b
;^^^2
:2^:2
-2::^
^::^:
:Vb
^: ^^
:1:::
:^^^^
^^^:22^2:^1
2::^:
:^:^:V1^
^2^:V:
:Y^V:
V:^^^
:~::V:
1:::^:::U
:^^
V:V^^:
^b b^2
^::^2^:^
:^:::1
2^ ::
:V1:V2--
^: ^^^^:
^1-1^^2^
2:U2
2^:^ :^
1:2^:
U::^:
2:^1-1
^1V:U
-:^^
^:V^^:V:1
:^2^:
:^^^^:
:2-2-
6::^:^^
^ ^V9-
1V:2^
2^2^:^:::2
^^b^2^
21:V1V
2^9^^^:
U^1V:
:b :^
:^V::
1 1-9
^ bV
1^2Y2:
^::2V1^
bV^^^
5^b b
1 ^^^^^
9: ^^ b b :
:1^2^1
2^2U2U:
^2^2:^2^
:^2:^b^b
:-:^2^^
2U1:V
2^:^ b
^::1^
:1:U:
-:^1^:
1-2:^b
-^^:2
:-^11
>:V
::^:-
^::^^
^ ::
^>^2^:U:^2^:
^^-1:
162:^
2^b b
:^::1
: ^ : b^ b
::Vf1
:2:b
: f b : :
2 b 2^
^^b^
: :1:
b^ b^
^: : b^
^b^^:
^^_^:
::^::
:^:^:^
-12V1
- :^ :
2121
--: b
12^1:2
U2^:2^2:^2
2]1^1
:U:^:
12:U2
V1^2V:
2U2^1:
V1:2V
:1- :^
: :V :
b2U
12^2]
:^^^
:V:1V:
U12::
^2^ :
2:V:Y^
UV:V2:1:V:
U2:U2V
V1V:V:^
Vb :
^:^ ^^b
:^ bVf^ :
:^^ b
^^^ b
_^^^:
12b :V^^b
^b^^Vb
V ^^^^2
:V:2: b
: 1 :V f^^ 2Y:
bVf^1
c^ 1
:Vb^
1^ :
^^^ :ZV:^
^V::1
^1:^b
1^:2^
1:2:V
U21 :: :
^:V2^2:
: ^V:
2^^^:
:2:^2
^:^22
16 ::V2:V1 b^:
:^1:^2
:^11^
V:1:
2^2^b^ :
:1^2^b
^^^:2
: ^^:V2
1::^1
b:^^::^2
: b ::
2:12:
:::^:
::^^
:^:1:
^ ^bVY:
:^^^:^::
^2^::V
^::12:2
:2^^2
:^^12
12V^^
^:^::^
U^V21V:
^1^:1
:2^1:
V::V1^2
:V:V:Y
1:2:^21
U:12^1
2^:U2
-1^2Y::U1^1V
:V2^12
2UV1:1:V:1^
U1V9:V
:U:12
1V:^1:
VU:2^:
2:^1^212^11^2^2
:VY2^
:^2::2
^:^2^2^
^1^:2
22YV:
:::V:
1V:^^
U:::2
:^:U2
1Y: 2
^^:~:^:::V:^bV^^::
Y2:U2^
U:1^2
b^b^:
^:V::
::2^:
:U2^:2:2
::V^^
::1^2:V:
:^2^2^:^2
2^b^:V:^
:V:V:U^^
p630-1
ftsTitleOverride
Romanticism in Europe (page 1)
ftsTitle
Alexander Pushkin developed what has remained the classic Russian verse style. His work absorbed many of the contemporary Romantic influences, notably Byron and Scott.
Romanticism in Europe (1 of 3)
'Romantic' used to mean simply the kind of thing found in a tale of romance. The word was first used in a more profound sense around 1800 by the brothers Schlegel, August Wilhelm (1767-1845) and Friedrich (1772-1829). These German intellectuals idealized the era of classical antiquity, especially the culture of ancient Greece, and then contrasted it with the literature of the Christian era from the Middle Ages up to their own time. This second era they called modern - as distinct from ancient - and defined as Romantic.
Idealization of Antiquity had long been commonplace (Classical models had influenced European art, literature, and especially architecture since the Renaissance). The Schlegels believed the human spirit had found in Classical Greece a state of perfect harmony with its earthly surroundings. The modern spirit, by contrast, they thought to be restlessly pursuing goals which are never fulfilled on earth; it is inevitably self-conscious and ironic, and its characteristic passion is yearning. Naturally these writers regarded themselves as belonging to the modern, Romantic tradition, and they soon became known as Romantics.
'Sturm und Drang'
Germany was at that time enjoying a great cultural renaissance in literature, philosophy, and music. The country was still far from being a single nation state, and there was a widespread desire to discover and affirm a national identity. The literary renaissance had begun when the critic and cultural historian Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and the greatest German poet, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), had proclaimed the need to stop imitating French culture. This had been for two centuries Neoclassical in character - based on Greco-Roman models - and therefore itself an imitation rather than truly modern; it was also associated with the kind of monarchic and repressive rule which had long prevailed not just in France but throughout Europe.
Goethe, Herder, and Schiller were the principal figures in a movement of young writers known as Sturm und Drang ('Storm and Stress'). Strongly influenced by Rousseau, they rebelled against convention in both art and life, and exalted the free, the natural, and the spontaneous. Naturalness of emotion and a feeling for nature were the keynotes of Goethe's youthful poetry, while his plays dramatized the struggle for freedom. His novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774), with its story of an artist's unrequited passion and suicide, made the new sensibility famous throughout Europe.
Young Germans felt immediate sympathy for the French Revolution, which seemed to promise escape from the old everywhere, now that the ancien rugime had been overthrown in its homeland. Instead came the Terror and a new French Empire established by Napoleon, which left monarchies and Neoclassical taste still in place. Thinkers and writers grew uncertain of their early liberalism, and many started to look backward, often to the Middle Ages, for a better social ideal.
The Schlegels' ideas helped to make most German Romantics idealize medieval culture. Goethe, by contrast, developed a Neoclassical style of his own. He lived in the court circles of Weimar, and he came to regard Romanticism as a sickness. He did not simply suppress his former inspiration, but disciplined it to a wiser perfection. His novel, Wilhelm Meister (1795-6), educates its Werther-like hero to accept his place in society. Faust, a dramatic poem Goethe worked on all his life, finally saves the hero's restlessly striving soul. The best achievements of Goethe's 'Classical' maturity are the verse dramas of reconciliation and renunciation - Iphigenia (1787) and Torquato Tasso (1790).
The dramatist and poet Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) similarly turned away from the rhetoric of rebellion towards the measured verse of a purely spiritual freedom. The moral idealism of his mature dramas, Wallenstein (1798-9) and Maria Stuart (1800) is more profound psychologically and dramatically than that of The Robbers (1781), a wild Sturm und Drang production. Schiller's philosophical essays on art and morality, and especially his concept of a beautiful soul, have been widely influential.
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
T1--1-
1]11U
T1U]]
YU19U]
1911U
101-10
T1U010U110
U1T11UU1T1
U0U0U,U0
U1U1T1U110
U1U1U1
0U10U1T11
Q0Q0-
U01T-101U0
U101U1010U
10U1T-T1U1
1U0U0
11U1T1T1T
01U1T-
Q0U0U
11T1T11T10
1U101Q0Q01
T1U0y1T1U0
U1T110U10y
1011U0
,-1T10U1U1
1y1U1T1U0U
U,U01U
y1U011x1U0
T1Q1T1T1
1U1T1Q010U
10Q0U1
0U1-0U
010U1101U1
1T11T11
1,U1,U
U11U1T
1U11U110Q
1T1-1U0U
11T1U10U1U
Q01T1T11U
U11U1T1U0
U00-0U
01T1U10U
11T1T110-
0U0U1T1T1U
10U011U]
11-1-0U1-
011U1-
U1,U0U
T1T1U1
0U10U1Uf
0-0-1T11T1
-10U10U
0U11-0-11T
U9]1-
11]1-T1
19U1UY]
9U1U9
11]11
1-01-
T1U1]Y
101]1
U1U11]Y9
]1]1U11U9]
1-11U19
9U911
U11U11
11]11
11-11011U]
1U1y]
U0U1xy
911]1
9U1991
]U1U-
1]19U911
5U9U1
]y]U1-
U91-,1
1x11U
10U1U
11]19
-11U90
-199U
0U9Y\
-U11U1U1U
T1U1U1U1U1
1U1U9
9U1]1
U]U]]y9
]1]1]1U9U9
U1U11]]
p630-2
ftsTitleOverride
Romanticism in Europe (page 2)
ftsTitle
Goethe in the Roman Campagna, painted by J.H.W. Tischbein in 1787. After a youth of restless Romantic aspirations, Goethe learnt to accept life's necessary forms. His encounter with Classical art during his stay in Italy from 1786 to 1788 provided creative renewal for his astonishingly diverse genius.
{ Romanticism in Europe (2 of 3)
The German Romantics
Apart from much speculative writing about culture and the creative personality, Romantic scholars developed German philology, collected the nation's folk-songs and tales, and translated Shakespeare and other kindred spirits of the Romantic age. A host of minor talents wrote poems and even fairy stories in a folkloric manner, some of which have been immortalized by being composed into Romantic Lieder.
The best poet of such song-like lyrics was Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), whose ironic intelligence, personal sufferings, and political principles lent this simple style some depth of interest. The danger facing all Romantics was escapism into self-indulgent emotions and fancies. Where this tendency was not corrected by a maturer sense of reality (as it was with Goethe), it required some unusual intensity of inwardness to raise fantasy above private make-believe.
Such intensity is present in the poetic meditations of Novalis (the pen name of Friedrich Leopold von Hardenberg; 1772-1801) on art and death, in the elegaic laments of Friedrich Holderlin (1770-1843) for the loss of the ancient gods, and in the tragic stories and plays which Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811) wove out of his sense that men are enclosed in illusion. Novalis willed himself to die for love, Holderlin went mad, and Kleist committed suicide.
The philosophical background to Romanticism
None of these developments, from Schlegel's definition of Romantic to Kleist's tragic view of the human condition, would have taken place without the all-pervading presence throughout Germany of a new kind of philosophy. Known as idealist thinking, it originates with Kant, and it analyses how much the world is shaped through human understanding of it. What appears to be reality is, in truth, a projection of the human mind. The specifically Romantic philosophers, F.W.J. von Schelling (1775-1854) and J.G. Fichte (1762-1814), showed how nature therefore corresponds with the mind, being in a sense identical with it. G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) saw in human history and culture a direct manifestation of absolute spirit (or God). Coleridge learnt this view of nature from Schelling and taught it to Wordsworth; Marx learnt his philosophical method, though not his political message from Hegel. Few aspects of modern European culture remain untouched by the influence of this period in philosophy.
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
txPT,P(,LP
L,(P,LPPT$
P,P(P(P
p,t(P
PpPxP$
L$,,$
,L,(Htp,Pp
$tH,L
(P$,t
,(P,P
(P,PLPP$,t
LP,LP,L,p,
PP(t(tPxPL
PLt,L
PLP,$
(P,p,p$P
L,,L$
t(P,P(,
t,(tPLP,
tTP(PP,
PLP($$
ttp,,
$,tTP1P(,L
,$,L$,($,L
p,LP,pxPL
PL,tPT,
$,P(P$
t(PLPLP
$$,P$
$,($LPPL,
tLPPLP,(,P
Pp,tTtxPp,
L,HPLPPLP
LP,p,L,,t1
$,p,P$
$,(,PLP
PL,pTPL,P
t(t($,
TP(tTP
LP,p,x,
P,pPL$
,t(P,
,$PLP
(t(t,p$P
,,LT,pt
,$t(t
PPx,px
,t(t,P
,LP,(P
$tLt(t,,$
$,L,$
txP,(P
$,L,$
tt($,
$P(P($,
P(PtPLPP
P(x,$,
PxTPLP,
P(H,(P,p
TtTt(t,H,p
P,$P(
$,Lt,x
,LPP(
P(,PPL
L$t(P,$,
$xPPT
,LPttp,tL
P(,P(,Pp,P
Lt,L0t
$PL,$$
$PLxPxP(
p,(,P$$
$,L,p
$PLPP
0P,L,$
t(P(,,($PL
,Pp,t$
$,t(P$
(P(,(,
l,xtPxT
,$(PLt
L$PLPP
L,$TP
$,$,P$
$$TP,P,
L,$P$
P($,,(P(
L,TxPxt
$P($,
$Pt(t,pPT
PL,tP(,pTP
PL,L,
,pPt(P,(P
p,L,t(t$,
,Lt,p,tL
P(tPxPt0tP
xP,L,L
$,pt(
LH,x,p
L,$,pt,p0P
,pPp0T
PxPxt(
PPL,,
,PLPPp,
ttLPp
p,L,(
$tPL,
$,pTt
L,pPp,$
Pxt,H
$tt(P,
,TPTy
,p$PL
$,p,PL
,LH,0T
$Tt0x\
(P,(,H0
$P(P,x,p,
0$,pP
]Q,p,t
Uttx,
(,L,P
P(,L,t
xH,pP
L,P,t(
t,L,$tP
,P$,t
,PLP0
$Txy\
t0t0$
$,x,x
\u(P(
H$$-U
\PLP,
(,txT,
t(t(tP
P(PLtxU
TxPtP
,LPPTt0
y,Pp0P
,t,yPtt
xPx,P
\P(,tL
TT,t(,
,PPtx
x,,(P
,P(PT
x,P(,
PLPT,
p,x(x
QT,LP
t^p,$
T,LPL
,p,ty
HTPPT,
,tTt]
xytTtL
]t,LP
,pTxx
Tx,Ht
Tx,tT
Txt,px$
xTx,P
Utt(P
PPTx]
TPLPPL
Pt(,P
t,Ltt
y,P,$
,L,P$
H,L,x
P,$$x
L,,LPt
$P,LPt
PP(Ht$
P$PLUT
PLtPx
]y0y,y0u]
PL,,p,P(P,
LPtLP
t(P,,LPP(t
,PL,pP,
P(,p$tLP$
,PPL$
H,L$,
LP,PLP,$
$P$,$,L,t
,pPP(T
PL,p,t
P$,L,
P(,$$
p,L,,P
P$,pP
,$,LPt
$$,p,
t(xPx
p,L,$,
P(PPLT
P,LPt
$,Pp,xx
$Pp,LP
t(PL,P
P(P(,L,,
P(P(TQ
(PPxTt
$t(,LPxT
(,(,TPTT
$PP(,
,L,PP
L,P(P
,t,pT
pt(xP
t(P,p$
t,$,$
HP$Ptx
PpPtLP$
,,HlP($
$,$$,
,tHt(
$,HPx
]lPt(
UxxTt
p,pTt
,ttx,
T$,xx,
,t,LPtp
PP(,P
$$PL,$
,tTtx
tPL,$
$tPTP
TtLTtP
,t$,$
Ltx,$,
HTlP(,
L,P(HU
tTxPPH
,HPtPT
UPxTx
P(P,pP(tT
$,,pP
P(Pxt
PL,$,
P(PH,
Pt$]U
P$t(P
(tTP(,
$P,pPxtT
PH,P(P,
$PtLtP
P,($$
P,,p,P
Tx,p,
$t,pP
$,($,
,t$H$$
T,,x,P(
P(tPLt
Tt(tx
$,L,(
H,p,pT
$P1LP,
xtLPxPxP
p,t1t
$,xPLP
(PP$,$
,p,P,t(P
P(,$,$,
,PLPL
tPpPx
$H$$t$
TxPtT,p,pT
t(t($
pPtLtP
($tPt
1$t0PP$
tTtTt0t
,$($,$,
$,P(PP(t,
($PpTtpP
P(P,t,
UP,tx
xx,L,PPxx
yPxP$
Tyx,t
Pxx,p
L$L,,$
UTUxUT
$,,Ht
t\tx,$,$
LTP(xPP
PTx,t,L,P
PxtPL
PxtL$
0P(t(
PQH(tTtPLT
L,pxTt
PLPL,
tLt0,
x]$,txU
H,x,xxT$
(t(tL
PpT$t
,PTPtLtx
PpTtxPTP
tpt($P
,yTtTtx
,pT,txTt
lxTtPL,
yx,xUtp
Tt(tp,pP
,P(xtLPx
tPxxPtLPTt
,t,p,t
(t0,tTt(tP
,p$Px
tPL,P0tU
yPxxTtx
Ltp,$T
0tPxt(PT
t(x,t,p,x,
,tTty,
xx,pTxx
L,P(PH,t(P
tTt,L
pTt(xPTPPt
0t(xxPLP
px,xTP
pxTt,
PxxtPpP
t1PTtt(PPx
PpPLTP0t0t
Tt0t(t,pPP
TP,(PPxPTx
xx,P(t
,L,LP
TxtTx
tTxPp
TPLtPLPPTP
PtpTtTPL
TPL,t
PLxTxPTTP$
txPtLP
PLTxTPx,p,
p0PPL,t(
PTU,,LTxUx
x,TyTx
PLPPp
tPLPTPTPLP
xPL,t(t,p0
ytTtT
,$PT$T
xxPxTP
$xPtTP
Lxt0tPTxPx
PPTP(tPL,t
TtTtpT,
Tx,pPxTP
L,p,LP,Lt,
p,LPP(tt(t
-xTtT
UxxPxH
Tt,txTxtP
PxPptPTtPp
,p,tLtx,t(
$,,$,
PLPLPPpTtx
Pt0tTt(x,t
PP(tTPLTt(
T,p0$
TxPP(
xxPxT
PxP(T
PPTPP(xPt(
Tx0t,p,t(
,xxt,LPxtT
t(tTP
TytTPLTPL,
PxPxTP,t
t,$,LT
PLPx,L
ttxLtxTt(t
,pPp,xPP(,
p,tPp,
TytTPPyxP
,$$PLPT
Ttt(t,pt0t
PTtTtTx,xP
PpP(tt,p,L
T0xPx
P(PPxtLt0x
t(PTt0t0tT
P,LPPxxPP(
Pp0tPxTtTt
0t0t,px
PLxPx
,pPtLPxPTP
LPxtLxt(t,
t(,t($,
p,PPLP(t,
TPUxP
,LP(PP
LPPLPPL
,P(t,LxPxH
,pPxtTP(tP
pt(t,L,
p,p,L,PLPP
(P$Pt
(,$,xPt
,Px,P,p
,(,L,
LPPLPPL
PH,t(t,pPP
LTPL,P(P,L
,0t,p
tLtp,t(t(t
xUx0t(
,,(H,
PP,P(
LPt(PPLPL
(PLt,p,,xP
LPPLxt
t,(PLT,0P(
t,LPT
,p,PP
$P(,p,
xPP(P,L$
L,(P,
PL,,LPP(
(,p,p,P(t,
LPLPLP,tLP
p,t(PLt,(t
PP(xT
$$PLTP
,L,,(P,
t(P,L,PLPP
(t,p,
pPt(t,P(P(
t(PLTPP(,p
L,$,,LP
P(t,p,LP
tUt(tTtx
P,P(P
P(t,,p
PxH,L,t(t,
,p,t(t,t(
PP,p0t(t,T
t,t(x,P,p,
PT,L,L,t
,PTxT
L,L,P,
P(x,p,P(
LPt,x(tTP(
t0tp,t
P(,L,,p
PPp,P(
L,$x1tp
Txt(T0P
t,t,pPxtt
(t(PL,p,t,
ptPLPP,LPx
,p,PPp,tp,
,tLPPLt0PL
,,pxPPLx
Lt,xS
LtLtt
,PTPL
LxH,tTtTtT
p,,L,
,pPL,
PLT,p
$,t(t,p,t
(P(tLtp0xP
(txPxTxx
tTtxTxPt
pPP(t
$,(PPLP
pTtLTtt
Ht(,$P,(
t(tTt(tTP,
(P,(HPL
xTP(x,t(
x,t,pT
TttPp
PLP(x,
,$,L,(P,$P
PpPHx,$t
PLtPPLt
,P(tPL
tLP0Pxt0
tLtxPtpx
Pxtp,pt
xTPUxPTPx,
P(,($
t(P,L
(,LPL
,,LPPLt(t(
t(t,p,t,p,
(,PLPTtTP
Tx,t(tTxP$
t,L,pPpP
PLPt(t,,L,
t(P(P,$
,L$,$
$,L,P
p,,PPL
,,L$Pt,L,(
,ttPP(P,(
H,p,p,L,
t(P,L,xt(t
,pTtPLPxt,
Pt0txtT
tpxPL
$,P(t
(PPtL
xTxTt,tPPt
PtTtpPx,p
txPxtT
tLtPx0PP
LPLPtL
t,tLP0Ht,L
TP(P$PL
t(P,L,
PLPTt
HTtPtLx
PT$tLtTtT
PLP,p,tPL
t(P,LPx,P
L,P(P(,
L,tLx,pPPL
PTP(,p
TPTtPxP
txT,TP(P
,P(PP
Ty0PPp
tLt,txPL
L,,p,
LPPL,t,
,,L,pPP(t0
tPP(t,
L,,P0yx
TxTPLt(
t(T,,
xTPpP
$,L,L,
(PH,P
Lt(P(P,LP$
,L,(t(t(
xPt,p,x
$,(PP
PTt0pxPxP
xTxxTxtPx,
txTxT
xxTtTxt
(,t(PTTPLP
TPTPpx
TxxPTP,
,t(x,xP
P(tPp
,xTt,Px0tx
yTtTPTt
x,p,,
xTxTxtPtxP
PxtTxxTtT
LTPL,
xTyxxT
LTt,LPt
1P$tP
xyxUxTxt0
Txt,xTxxUt
Px,tTUxP
TPtPxPTP
PTxT,x
TyxTxUx
LTt0PT
\t\pT
xTPp,
xPTxtTu
,xyxT
TP0t0yTPU
tTx$,x,
x,xTtT
xUxTPTxx
x,P(TUTxTt
P,t(,t(t
xt(PP
LPxPx
txTtt
pTPTx
t(tLxt
xTxTxTx
xtxTyT
yx9x\TP
$TPTxPxP
L0tTt0xxPt
x0ttx
,PLt,p,xPp
,(tTP,t
,(,PTP
P,t0tT
t0TPTPLP
PTTt1
UTtP(,p,(
Txx1t
xPTtPp,x,x
LTxyTtxT
xyPTP
UyxTy
,L,P(0x,P
(P(t(
PxLyTQTy\U
TPTU]xTxT
TtTPLTxtT
T,Tx,pTxPP
]xyPx
Tt,p,yPUxT
tT,y,xTx
T,P,xxTP,p
,xPxPPT]PT
xxP0y,
t\xxPTxT,
0tTt0x
x]PUP0P
]tTTxyT
PUx-0
P0QTyPLPTP
t0Px,
x,x,xy
TxyTx
]xTUxx]
t(,T1
Uy\y]
PUP0TtTxTx
,TtTy
Ty0Ux
p0,t(PTP
(,T,p
PPH,$0
xTyxU
xTyTy
PL0P0,P(,P
p,x,L
t$$PH,
PptTPP-
P(P,LTPt(
0yxUP
Tt(t,
xUtTPT
xtTxT
LPT,t(
P,TP(x
0y]xTU
P,H,p
tPpPxxP
L$PPL,y\
UxTx]x,x
TyTx]
TUxTx0
TxyT0yTy
t,xTP(,
x0,LT
Ux]TT
LH,p,HPL
(x,xtPx$
yPxTPp,P
-x0tU
xUTxyTP
,xTxUxT
P$,L,P(,p
Pt,y,,
]x]x0x
H$P$P
x]xx]
Uxx]tUx\
TxxUT
,x,0xxPyxT
xTxTy
PPxTx
]TTUy\yy0
x1y0t
H,L,H,(H
]y\yxUx
]xyTx
xy]xx
Txx-x1x1
T]]T0TU
U\TTx
TU\UT1x,Px
0P0x1,t,TU
T]xy0xt9xU
($,$,$,$
xTyTT
p$,$T
xx]xyTyT
\y0yT
T1TUT0yT0T
,y0UTUTU,T
xPx,L
(T,xP
,yTyTxxt
UxyTP
,LUPL
Tx,U1
TP00QT0x-T
1T,10y01x-
x1x,xx1PxU
x1xTyTU
xyxt]
yx]xTy
HTuTt)
xUxy\xTyU
TxyTxTxx
TUT-y,
U,1P0,x0TU
0UT0T0
x,TTUx0y0y
Ty0yU
yTy\y
UxUTTyU
0y1xT
TxUx0
xyTy\y
TUTT,T1
y0,U01
TPx-T,x0y
x1U,0yTUT\
xUx0PTxx
0yTy0xUxUt
10,TTU,T1P
xUTTQ,0TU0
TUTT-,x0x0
,0y0y8x
TyxT0xTy
yTy\y
0-x,UTUT,U
,TU,T,0T1x
Q01P8yT]T1
Ux0yT
y0xTxT]T
yx]xyy8tUP
TQUxy\xT
xUxyTPTy0y
UTTxU
0xUTP
,xTQ\x,tTx
1xTy0yxT
xy\yx]x
TU,1T0P1T
x]yTyT
$H,$$
xUUTy]
xUTTxxTUTu
x,PTPU
UPTytxx0U
,x0PTTPU
TPxtLPTtTx
x]xxyTxUxT
xPxxU
,U,,x
1TTP00
P1TQ0
x]x0x
1x1xTxUTTU
Uy0x1
8xy\U
y\t1t
PTUTP
PPLPTUx,PT
x-xTxyxUxx
T1x1y9
T1x9y1
0x0y]xU
yTxUTx
yxTyTTy
0y]xxUxTy
xTyTyTxx
T0t9x-x
TxTPx
xxUx]
xTPTya
0T1P1UT]
TxU0y0yTx
\xx]0
Tx]xTUT
xTt,LT
TtxUt0tT
]x\yU
\PTxy\
TUx,xUP\
yxTtTQx,
yTy\y]
]xTyx0
xTxy\
]xTyx
TyTy]
x]x\xTxyTT
Tx]xTx
yxUyTyxP
P,L,P,L
$t$Pp
xyxTUtxTT
yxUxT
yxUTU
Tx,t,xTx0
xTxTxP
xTxxy
xy0TxUx1
xTyTy
UxTxyTxxUx
yTxTxyUxUy
xy,PxT
xTy\xy\xyT
yTxxT
yt\xU
UPTTyTx
xyTx,
$tt(P$
\yxUx
TxxPPTxUxx
yTyTyT0PTy
xyTxyT
xTPLP
PTTPxxTyTU
UxUyT
$,P,L,t(
yTyxTy
Qx]x\y
xx,x0t
,TTP,LPtxT
xTyxUxUx
xUTTtPT,
Tx]xUyx
U\PxxUx-
0PUT,x0xPT
xTxx1x,x0x
PyTx0t]xT
,y1xP
$,L,PLPP
y\yx]T
TxyTyxyTy0
xTxxTy\y0y
yTtTt,x0
xTx0yTPUT
xTTt1
,PTPxxT
(,t0$xU
TyxxU
,xt0x,
P0x,t(x1
T-PyTxT
xTyTy\xUx]
1x,y0xPU
xTxxTyxTxU
TxTxTxUTTx
T0x,TPxPTT
tTUTxyTxy0
x,xyTTPT]x
xTt,xU
,xUTUT
xy\PTQTU
x,x,UTPTTQ
PT0xy\ty
xUxxP
,yxUP
\yyTx
TTUPxTT
t(PTTPTUPx
UTP]x,xP
Ty0yTx
,xTy,xT0
x]xyTu
0txTU
]TTyTPUxP,
T,LTT,xTyT
0TTUT
PUTx]x,x0x
,x,xPT
,x10U1
x\TxT
xxUx0TTxTT
PT0x0x,t0t
0T,P0TPTP
PUTPTyT1TP
Ux0x1xyTyx
QTTU,P
L0PTPT
UxyxU
yTQ\yx
Ux,t0
x1,TPPTUTx
0x1x,t1
TTxxT
t]x0y0t0P$
t,T0y,
yTy0x]xTx0
TTtTTx,T,L
T1x1t
p,Ttx
1xxUx1xUx1
xPxTy,0tTy
xTx0T,
]t0y,
x,Tx1xTQ
,0P0P,x1t0
,0xx1x,x]
yTTyT,x0t,
0PTT0t
0t0yTP,
0UTUT
Tx]PTTx1x0
xTxPxTPT0x
Tx]x1
PPT,1t
0yTx,
UxPPx
0x1t1x0t
P01P1xU
TxxUT
yxx0yPTxy0
UPxUxxUPT
TTx0txTP
0P1P,P(T0U
,x,P0,x1y0
x1xxTx]x,
(t0y0PL0t,
,TPQ(,
0t0P1
y0P1P
]xTyT
Tx1xT
xUT0xUt0yT
PTPTxP\L,
,y,,L0t1PP
TTP0xPUx,x
UxPTQ\PUP1
P0tx,TtTPT
y10PTP
-T,1x,xTyy
Ux1x,
1Ty\yT
tTPTxTTUxx
PUx0PUP0t,
T,x1xUy
y,0T,
TT,L00t0T,
TPx,T,UTyT
xT,x,xTPTx
0,0P,LTx1T
\U]x1
xUxy0
xxy,xTy0T
xUPUx1x0xU
P,T-tTTPUT
,p0Q,P0t1P
TP(1x0UxPy
Px,T,PLTt,
PPxTyt,LU,
T,p,x
(1x1xT
1x1x0
xTxTxx
Uxy\y,y0y0
x]xUTy0xTU
1xUt0TUT
1x0xTxT
0PTx0
PTU,x1t
xy1x,QTt9L
,x,TTU
,xP(x,x
P(TUx
]y0yTt0
1P0x1x
x]PUxTxU
,xTxx]T
1xTx1x1x
TPTty0
P,0tPT,yP
0x,U0xTQTP
TQ0PUTPxUx
,x0x1,xUTT
TUTPTU
TP\UTP\
f1T,(x]x,
1x,0t0U
P1Px1
0P(0PP
x,x0xTP\PT
P]xy0UxUxU
x0xTUxx1x0
P]xTyTyxU0
x,T1P,TTy
x0TPTU
T0x,x,x,
,xx-xUPU,x
,y1P0xTyxT
P0t(xTxTtx
y1T,0-0
P0P0010Px0
UxTxTyT
x]xUx0]T
UTyTxx1xtU
1xTyTy]
UxUTUxTP
]txTy\UTTU
x1x,x0x1tx
TT1x0t0x1t
0PTt0U,PUT
P0x,PTtTxx
\x,PT
yU11PUU\,1
P1,UTPT
L,0,0P
]x]xx]
Ux0xx\yy\
xyTxTyxy
Tx1x]x
xUTUU
,x1x0x]t0
PxTQ0x
,xP0x0t1TP
t,x0tUxy0
x0P(P
1P,x,T0
Ty0P1x0
xUxTxxTx
TxyTxUPT
\yT,xU
x1xPTUTTPx
0xTx0TP
,UPTUTPT
PTTP1PT
Px,t(
xt0y0tTP,T
0P,pTTPTx0
y1t0L,p,P,
xx]PT
PTPTUT
0xUTy
xTUTyx1xTx
xyxUx1
]TxxTTUx]
TTPy,x1x0y
,Ty0x
xUTTx,y
x,L0xT
x0,TT
yTPx1x1,p0
x,tx0t
x0xx,
-PL]y0y
TTy0y0x
0P0TP
xy\yy\
t,x]Ttx
0x0t0t0t]x
Ty0y,P0xTx
,TUxy0x\M,
T,Tx,
t0x1x0t0xx
,LTx1
yTP\T,TTUP
TT,1t0TP(x
0t,0,
PTxyTyTy
0xUT0u
\x]x]y
xUxTUTUt1x
-T0xU0t0x1
Uy0xTxTxy
UTUT0t0x1P
TP00x,x,x0
QPT0PT,x,x
,T,x,0t1x,
TPUTP1PLtT
PTPL,TP(x,
PU0-PT0t0U
y\TUy
0x0xUT
x0x]TTy\xT
y\y0x,x,x
]T,0xT
Txx0,x0x
0t,t0TT
x0t0P,
PTxTPPT,PT
PUxTT0x,
P,xUTPT,0T
,x,0,LTPLP
,x0Ty0xxTx
]xx\yx]
0xTPTP
x]xTx]
Ux1PT
PTQTxTUxU\
P)t0x0x0xU
1x1P,U,QPT
TUTPTx0P(x
(TUTT0UU0
P(x1x,0xx,
PPyt0xx,TT
P(P(x-TTL,
P,L,,L
P0U0-xPUTU
yTxxTx
TyTUT
x\yTy0xxQT
0t]x1PP
TTyx1x0yU
,x0xxT
y0x,p,x,
,P(P,(,T,Q
Txt1,LTP0P
(TxTx0PTPU
PLTTP0t,x,
P,t(T,,L,,
]y]yxU
Uyx0yx]
Uyx1x1
1xUx0xUT
Tyx,T,x0xP
\xyTx
xxTxx
t1x,0xTUTy
TTP0Px0xPU
L,P(xT
T,0xPTT,,T
,L,x,xPTUP
TPTP,
0y\x0
0y0x]
1x0xTU
y]T\yxU\
TTUP0
xxUTT
TP0,1t0x,x
,TPTP
PTTPT0P0P(
x,p,,P(x,
TUU,P0
yx1y]xU
0y0y,t
TUTPPTPyT
TQx0xPUTUT
P(,L,
x,T0x,x,
TPT,TTU0PT
Px,xTP(,P(
P(t0Px,xTP
0xP(x,t0x,
PTT-L
UU]xU
y0y\xUxUP
]P1T,PP0T,
0yPUTT
,P,0,L,T,(
x1x,TPL,,
P0,0P0t
P0L0T
,xP0PT,TPT
y]xT]Tx
]x]x]
xTy0x]
]y1x,y0y
xTx0Ux]
x00P(T,PU
y,L,0P0
t0x0,,p,TH
0t0P,y
,t,x0y0TTP
p0P0,L
]y\y]
yTxyT
,x1PP
T,P0T,L
Ux0yxTt]x
Ux0t0x1
P10P(
xT,x0t0P0,
x0t(t
x,L,,L0
,P(T1
,T,0,0T
yx]x]x
T\yxTy\
]P]xPT
x]txTUx]tT
t0y0yTy
xTx,TPx
Tt0u0
U,xP0x0xP,
T-L,,P,]L9
t0P(P,0P
x0t,L
,,UPLx,T,0
UxPTTU
y0x1x0y0x-
x0tTx1
0P,x0,xT
UTy,T1xUx
L00P,,0P0
y0t(,p0PTt
0t,L,
(P,L0,
P(,L,(0x
TxUTUP-
\QTT,UTTUT
,0y,T0,T,x
,TPy8x
UxUTUt8
,y,p0t0x,L
T],(,T1,P0
PT,P(P
(0P,T,TPT0
x0PTPT0
TyxUx]xy
Tyx]x
Tx9y]
0t0x1
UPT]xUT,
,,1TPUTU
Txxt]LTx
x,T,,
T0t(,L
P,L0P(
,L,T-
x0P,p
P(,P(T,x-
]]T]T
yTy8y0x\x
x]yx]
yx]y\
0y,P0
x,x0P,
yx0y0x1TUP
]TUxUTTx,x
TP0,T,LTP(
t1P(0
0P(,P0P(,T
p,P,,P(
,,(T1P,
]]U\]
1x]xxT
U\Ux]TTU\
U]x]P]U,
UU]Ty0t,y
TUTx1P1P0P
,T,x0t1
P0TTy0PTTP
TTPPTTP]
(Q\xPTP(P,
(t(P0P0P(0
P,,-TP(
0,T,x,P,
L0t(T-P
U\Uy8
1x]\U
,x1xU0t0U
xuTP1P,
,xTT,L
T,xTyU,U0y
Tx1x0
xPy\]TPUTP
0,(P0T,
1P,L0T,0
,t0T,x0,T
UxUxxUxUTU
TUT0yT
x0x0x,y
0y0UTT
x-x,x,y,T0
yTPTPTyT,P
P,0x0,P(P
x1T1P
T$,L,,P,
Uy]x\
]T\yy0y
]T1y0
,L,y,U
1x-x-P,T,0
t,0,x,,L,T
Tt,L0y,yTx
PT,xTx,
x0P0t0P,TT
P,0P,PTP
t(,P(
xUxxUT
]x]yxUxyT
1x1x0
U,TTPTT]x1
P,x0x0x1PT
,1x1xyPtTy
,TTyTP0x,
TP,(,,
y]x0y8
]Tx0x]
]]y\yT
xTyTx
x1x0y0y
9y]y8y0y
]UP0PU
xU\U,y0TUT
PPTTyTUTy0
0T1TUTUP(,
x1P0PTP(U,
L,T,P0x,xT
,,T,P1
1x1x]x\
TxTx0
uxTyTU0x
yTUx]x
]x0y\xUTyx
y0,Ux,UTU,
P0U,x0x
x,xU,,
QTP,L,,
xTyxT
PUTxxTxy0x
0xUxx
x1xyx
0xUx9
x1]T0-T]xx
1TU0UTy0UT
TTU9xPP,
0P,(T,
LTUP0
x,L00,
0T,x0x
TT,L0,U
,,0L,P(P
1xUxx\xy\
UTTQTTx1
0xUTTPTU
Ux0yT
0]y0xTyT]
yUx\y
PT1TTUTx,
T-T0x
0UT$x,0-L0
T,PTP0Q,PP
1xUU\t
Ty0yTyT
Tx1x,xx1PT
T-x1xU
1yy]y]y]y
]UTUT
0U,P0t
P0t(P,L
TP,L,T,(x,
PLT110,
]\]TU
xTxTy
xyx1TT
t1x1xUxy0t
0t1x0x1x0y
TyTTx]
]y\yyT
0x]U\]
y8y0t0x1\1
y1TTUP]TUy
0x,TU
,$]0P
,,T,L
xUT1y\
yT1TT
1x0x-
UxTx-x0x0t
0xUx0xTUt0
x0xy\Q
x]P]xU
y]x1TTUx,x
1y1xTU0TPT
UTUPT0Py,1
0y]x1
x]y0x0
tyTTUT,x0y
0t8y0x0yx0
tTx0y0x]t1
TU\yTUx,
UU\yx
1xUTxxU
0y,TT
x10TU
t1P(P,
L0,P1
p0t0x,
L,P,L
9x1}\
\U]yT1]Ty
xx\]xy
]x1xT
1x1x9TUTyx
TyT,xUPU
xUx0x1x,yT
Ux1xU\
9xTyT1xxTU
TU\UPy0x]
0P,(UTU
U0UP,P,xy
x,,UPT,L,
P(U,L
(T,U,
Txy8y]x9
TU\UU\U
]x0xTU
Ux1x1x0x0P
UxTxTyxT
0yT]TUT
yUTUxUx]
T]UTTU
P0U,,T,P]U
P0T1x0
P(,L,
U0P01P1
Ux]xT
yUUxyxU
P1x0xU
T1xUxUTyx0
yTTPTUTxyT
xyTy0xy
yTU\U]
T]TU,,P0U,
1t0PL,
,p0$P1(,,
]xU]U
T]UUT
1x]x9x]
\yTU\
xTyxU
TxxUxTxUxT
y,y0t1x0x-
T1TPTUP1T,
(x,0t(,P
,,L,L0,P
y]Y]y]
QTxTyT]x]x
Txyx]xx
U\]]Tx1
,x-T]
U0-x0U0U,
y0TPLP,PTP
L0,L$
\yUT10x1
TxTTxUTU
xUx1xT
y]xy0xU
Ty0yTyTxyT
y\9y]x
0xt1x1
UTU,,(,
y,T10
P,PL,
\y\y]x
]y\y]
]x]y\y]
TxyT1
Ux,TxPxTx
TxTx]
TU]UTPP]xT
TU,xU
T,,TUP
LTx,0
L,1P0P1P
TU\y1
U\y8y8
\Tx]x
TUTxUx0x
y0t9yTP0yU
TUP]TU
L,P0,
,,P(P
x0x,xxT
0yTyTyT
x]y0xy]TT
,T1TU
0yx1T]
-t(T,P1,]y
L,L0,
0y0y]
Ux\yT
TxxTUTTx1
UyTTy
0yT-x,xT
UxUxT1x
]yx]Tx]
t1y0U0P0x,
T]x]y0U,,
p0P0P,(0
0P0,T
,0,L,$
]y9x]
8x9y]x
yTyx]x]y
Tx]x1
xy,,xx
0xTT,xTx\U
UT0t0
y0y0TT1P1x
,L,LT
1$,L,(P($
UxTPy\yx
00x-TUTUx
TyTUxUx1TU
1TU]t
1T1y0y1y
1x,U,
t,U(P0P
(P,0t(0,
]xU]]U
x\xTTxx
\1xTxTy
TUPTxUT
Ux]xTx
9TTP0x1,
TP,T,L0
]TUUT
]y\UUTT]TU
]P]xyT
\yUxyx]x
T0tUT]
TT,x1x
TxTyTy
1xTx1xT
0xT]TT
Ux10UPU,U
PPL,xT]L,
P(P0x
$0P(,P0
UTT,P(P
]xUx1
Ty\UxT
]UTy\]
]x1xyT
]y\yx
TTyxy
TUTUP
yUTy]y]
yTP0P]L0
y0TUT11x,,
Tt,xTP(]-T
,LPP1,LP
0P(P(,P(P
U9y9y
]0y]0y0xUx
8y]x9
\UT]U\
\UTT0
]TTxx1
x]T0xUxy
9x1P]
0x0x1x0x\
yy0T,
0txTxy
1xUxTxT
x]xxTx
y,,t1P0U10
t1T,L,P
(P,L,0x0
y,,p,,UPL0
L,,L0
UT]y8y8yUT
TU\UT
\y\y8xUxTT
]Ty\y\y
0Tx0UTUxy0
TUyxy
yTT1U,LT
(P1y0y
0T,TP
P1,L0
P0,L,
,,L,L,T
x,(T0P,L0T
1\1T]x
,]TU,\y]y
x0TUx]
y0x1x
1xUx]
y\Ux0y1
8x]xy
x]yx]x]x
UUx1xx
xUx1xUy
1P1x,0,0Q0
(P0PTt0
t1PUx0-,x,
0]]x1y0]
\UU0xy0x0
xUT]UT
y8y9y0x
0x0y0UU
TT10y9
x\T]x
Ux1xU
xUT1x]y\y
\U\x1T
y0x1x\
1y8y0x1
x0xy9
9xTT0
0y0t1
P1U,TPU,1P
xTUTP]T
P,L,P(P,L,
,P(,P
U9T9U
TU\yT
y0U\y\
Tx1x10
UT]x]x
UTUT]x
]T1x9xxy8y
\x]y]x1
TUTxy0
xUx1x
UU0yT
UTxUx1
Tx1xTxUP1
,P(,T,,
y0P)0
x0t\y,
x1PTy\
,t0P1,
0P,(P
TU,(P
y09x1]y\y
0y8UTUY
]TU]TT1x1
0T]TU\x9
yTP]x9xU
]TTUx
1y]xU
1x1xT
0y0x]P0xUT
P,,P(
P,T,(P
1UTUT]P]x1
0y\y8y1x0
yxU\10x1
0y1xyT
0y0x]
x1x]y0
TU0U0P1x1x
,x,x1P1t0H
,0P,x1x1t
xUx0t
P(P0$
T0,P0x0xP
LT,L0,T
y01T]
y8yUT]\
]\U]x1
x1t9PT
x]TUT
T]U9x9
T]]x]x
1x]T]
9x]y1
9x9x1
U0yTUPU
Tx,x1P(0t9
x,y8TU,10y
,T,y0
H0TUUT
UTUT1t9
(0P(T,0t
,L,(0x,0P,
UU8y\
UU0UTU0U0T
1x1T1
UU0T]UT]U
Y]]U\U
TT]xU
T]Ty0UT
TUT]x
\xTy\
]TxTx
0TTyxxUx
1x]PU
YU]TUTUTUT
U,P0t0x1x0
y0y9xU,TUx
T]xxUT0x-x
1T01T1T1x1
,T,(P,T,
P,TPTPL,
9x]U0U]\UT
]U8Q]T]11x
]T]y8Q0
]TUTUT9x]y
TUU\T
UT]]\yU
1y0x,T
,x1T1T\U
1xTUUT\UUx
9x]yTU\y
]x]yT
UTUy\y
]x]yT
\y]T]y\
1y1\UU0
T]UTTPUT,U
x-TyT
PTUTUT
T1t]P(P
x]11x0
y1x1P1y,TU
P0P,TU
,T,P(TQT,x
P(P,L
p630-3
`!B"
ftsTitleOverride
Romanticism in Europe (page 3)
ftsTitle
Victor Hugo, leader of the Romantic movement in the 1830s, was elected to the Acadumie francaise in 1841, became a peer in 1845, and was the object of public veneration in his later years.
Romanticism in Europe (3 of 3)
The French Romantics
In 1810, the French writer Mme de Stael (1766-1817) wrote a journalistic report, based on personal contacts, praising this renaissance of German culture. Her influential book On Germany was suppressed in France, on Napoleon's orders, for belittling French culture. And in truth, the change in outlook that was now becoming known as Romanticism owed as much to the French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), as to any German.
As early as 1750, in his Discourse on the arts and sciences, Rousseau had begun to resist the rationalism and artificiality of the Enlightenment, and to plead for naturalness of feeling, freedom from constraint, and a better social order.
Rousseau argued that man's inherently perfect nature is corrupted by society. His novel Emile (1762) proposed a new type of 'natural' education, in which the child is shielded, like the 'noble savage', from the harmful influence of civilization. From Rousseau's novel La Nouvelle Huose (1761), which shows sentiment, virtue, and introspection flourishing in an idyllic setting, all Europe learned a new sensibility and appreciation of nature. From his political treatise, The Social Contract, a new revolutionary generation learned their most radical ideas of freedom. Rousseau's influence on both the Romantic movement and the French Revolution can hardly be exaggerated.
By the time a generation of avowed Romantics appeared in France, still further influences were at work. There was a mood of religious revival, encouraged by Napoleon, and captured by Francois Renu de Chateaubriand (1768-1848) in Le Gunie du Christianisme (1802). This apologia for the cultural and psychological significance of religion - 'the genius of Christianity - includes his famous autobiographical tale of Romantic melancholy, Renu.
Besides this, there was admiration for the work of Byron and Scott. Many historical novels were written by authors not considered Romantic, like Balzac and Alexandre Dumas. The finest was produced in Italy by Alessandro Manzoni (1785-1873) - The Betrothed (1827).
A more or less 'Byronic' poetry of lonely intellectual genius, isolated in an alien world, bewailing its fate and addressing nature, was variously practiced by such well-born writers as Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863), and Alfred de Musset (1810-57). The greatest was Victor Hugo (1802-85), whose high-minded idealism lent his later poetry a prophetic and visionary quality, drove him into political exile, and made him at last a national hero.
For these writers, Romanticism also meant an opportunity to break with the regularities and restrictions of Neoclassical forms, both in verse and in drama. Hugo's preface to his play Cromwell (1827) rejected conventions observed in France since Boileau, and pointed to Shakespeare to justify, for instance, mixing comedy and tragedy in the same play. Cromwell failed, but its preface became a Romantic manifesto, and another play, Hernani, triumphed in 1830, causing a near riot. The preface to Hugo's volume of poems, Les Orientales (1829), similarly proclaimed complete freedom of inspiration for poetry. However, the medium in which Hugo's wonderfully vivid and dramatic imagination expressed itself most freely was fiction, notably The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831) and Les Misurables (1862).
A shift from Romanticism towards Aestheticism and Symbolism is evident in the work of Thuophile Gautier and the poet and prose-writer Gurard de Nerval (the pen name of Gurard Labrunie; 1808-55). Nerval translated Goethe's Faust as a young man, but his greatest achievement is his sonnet sequence Les Chimeres (1854). These densely symbolic and allusive poems prefigure the poetry of Baudelaire and Mallarmu.
'National' poets
The great 'national' poets of other countries were also active at this time: Adam Mickiewicz in Poland (1798-1855), Giacomo Leopardi in Italy (1798-1837), and Alexander Pushkin in Russia (1799-1837). Their work goes far beyond the typical concerns of Romanticism, although these are present too in, for instance, the folkloric material and ironic self-awareness of Mickiewicz; in the solitariness, self-consciousness, and melancholy of Leopardi; and in the nature scenes and yearning passions of Pushkin.
Mikhail Lermontov (1814-1841) who shared Pushkin's rebelliousness against Russia's backward regime and society, is more obviously a Romantic, both in his lyric poems and in his novel, A Hero of Our Time (1840), which portrays a cynical Byronic outsider. Like the hero of his masterpiece and like Pushkin whom he admired, Lermontov was killed in a duel. Russians found in the landscape and people of the Caucasus their image of the simple and natural, which generations of Romantics - under Rousseau's influence - longed for. The most interesting Romantic literature grew from the realization that this ideal was unattainable.
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1U111
1U111U1UU1yU1y
-1-11U1U1--
-1-11
11-1-1-
0QU1y1U1y1U
-1111-1U1-11
1-11-
-1--11
U1111
Y1U11
1111U-1
1--11--
-11U1
]yUyy]y]
]1--11-111U1111
1yy]yU
-1-1-11U-1-1-
1-11-1
]UUy1yUy]
1-1-Y11
1-1-11
1-1-1
111111
UU01yU1U0y]y
]UUyUy]
-111-
1-11U-11U
11U1111-11U
1y1y111y1y]y
1-1-11-
-111--
1111U
1-1-1
11y1yyy-
-111U1-1-
11111
]Uy]y]y
0---1-11-
-11-111
1-1-11-U111
-1U1-1
11-11-1111U
--111
U-1-1U1U1
1U1-1
111111
11-1U
-111-1-
1-11-11-1-1
--111-
11U11
-1-11U111
1U1U1111111-1--
11-1-
U11111-1-1
111U11-
-11-1
1-1-1
11111U
-Y1-111-1
-Y111
U11U1111U11
-1111
-11-11
-YU1-
--11-1-1
-1111U11
1111-11
11111--
1111U11-1
1-1--
-1-11-11--1111
1--11-1
-11--11
11-11-1-
-111--1
---11
1U111-
11-111U
11111111
-U1-1-
-111-1--Y
U111U]
11-1-
10---1
1111Y
U1111---
11--1
--111-1-1--
-111-111-111-
1U1Z1
Y1-1111
1-111-1-11-1
-111-
---11U1
11-U1
-Y11-
-111-,--
-1-1-
-11-11U
-1111
-1-1-
111--1--
--01-U
-1-11
1-111
Y-1U1
--11--1--
1111U111
1111U
--111-1
11U11
1-11111U-
-1-11
-1111
1-111
-1-1111111-
11U111
--1Y11-1
---11U1
-11--
-111-
1111-
-1-1-1
U1-1U-
11Y1-1
1-1-1U
-111-
-1---1-11-1U
11--1
1-1---
-1Y1-11
-1111
--111-1
1-11U
-1U11
1-11-1-11-
11111-11-
11-1Y-1
--1-1--
-11-1
-1-11--11
11-11
1-11U1
U11--111
-11-111
-11-11-1
1U111-1
-1--1
1-11-
11111-
--1-11-
1--11111-1
-111-111
1-11-
U1-1-1
-1---01-
11-111-Y11-1-11-
---,-
1-111-1
--11--11
-111-1---1-
-111-
-1-11-
--1-1Y1
-1111-1---1
11--,-U111-1U
1111-
11-11U111-
-11-11U
1-1--
-1-111Y
-1-111
,1---
1-1U11U1
1-1-1
---11-
1--11
-1101-1Y1-1U
-,-1-
-1-1P
,1-1-1-
1-1---1
-1-,--
-11-11-
11--1-11
111--
-1111-
111-1-Y11-1-11U
)1-(1-11
--11-
--1--
1--11
Y111-
1--,-
1---Y-
-1--Y
-11-1-1
--11-1
1-11-
-11-1111-Y
11-11-,--
1-1-1
1(1---
1--111-
--U1-1-1--11---
11)1-
1-1-1,
11--1
11-1--1,-
-1111-
------,1
--111-1-
--1-1-
1-111
-111-1-
U11-1
U1-1-1M
1-01-
-11-11P
-111-
--1U11-1
--111
-U11U1-
-111-1M
,-11-
-1-1--1U
--11-1U
-11-11
1-1-1
-111-
-1-11
-11-1U
1-111-11-111-1111-11
1-Q11
U-1Y-111-
1111-
-11Y1U-1
-1--10U1Y11-1-1-
1-1-1-
-11-111-1-11
-0-UU
y]y1Y
-11-1-1
-1-11
-,11-
1-111---
-11-1-1
-111-
11-11-1111
1T11y]-
-1111--
--1--
L11)11
-,11)-
-11-1-1
101--,-
---1,
P11-------
1-111
--1-1-
,-1--1--
----1
U1-11
1-1--1
11U11
111-11U1-U
1-Y9ZU^
11111U11
1y11y
y1--T
-U---UY1U
,-U-0
U)U1U
1y]]y
-U1U-11(-T
U--1T1Q-0
11y]-
0111M1U-1011-0y1y]-y]
y111y1-
Q--U,--
0-U0y1-,1Q1
11111-
1T11-1Q
]M,-1
,-y1-
U1L11]y
U1-1U
1--,-
1U]-111
0Q1Q1U-Q]y1y
]U-11--
11111U11
]y111-1
1U1U]
1]U119
]UyU-1U]
yUU]Ux
1U1U11
UUU-U-]
}-UU-0y
1--,UUUU
-1111
-1Q1--
M-,-1
1,11Q,M-,-10U--,-
1--T-1-
M,--0-
)-0--
,-1-1
,Q0-10-MQ0
UQ0--T-U
]MY,)1P11,1P
)1QUy
0-U1L1-y1Q
T-P1U
--,--1y0-yy-
y]yy]
,--11T-U-,11-L
0yUy]
M0Q0-1T
,U,U-1)-0U]]
U-1QU
]Q0Q1T
0----,
UQ(U]
M01U,y1yU10Q1-0
11y1Ux
-T-]QyUQ]y-,Q
1T-U-T-1y
Q01--P1y
-Q101-y1U0y1yUy-0Q
P11y1T1(-0Q0y1y1U1P-T
]y--T111-Q--
--0yy1,--1}
U,U1y1P1,
,M0---T1Q0
UQ0UQ1)---Q-
Q11,Q1
UU1-QY1P
,-0y1P
U1y1y
P1---0
U1U0-U
UT-,y---T-1
TyU]y1y
UUy-0Q
1P)-U
1TQ1,UT
U--,U
UU--1,U,U1y
]y1UU1
L1U,-1,U11-L-UU
)T1UU
y-,-L
L1U-PUT-
M1yU--
-,U,UU-
(Q-,U1]y]
UUU,Q)
]x]y]
0Q1UTUT
1-1P1
1T11y
-1yUy
]UUU1,U
Q1-T1y]yUy]
11P)-,-T1
]U1,1P
11Q]y1P
Q(-0U]y0y
yUP1,Q
U,Q0y]
QU1y-0QY)0y-T--
U,UUyy1,)-
UQ,U0
0U0yUQ(Q-
MUy1Q
M-,Q0Q1y0-L1P
U,-Q(
]y1Q1Q1U
,-,-0--,-
M1----,1-011-y
U1Q,1Q(--0
P)--T
-1(1-
--1y-U
)-,UU1,-,U0-0y1U1Q1y0y
TQ1Q0
(1),Q-1y1Q0y-U-UUU1y11]yQ1yT1Uy-,M-
yUU]y
Q0-T1,y1T
1yUU,yy0
y1xU-1T1-0
1----
y1y1y
U]y1y1T
11x1Q,1-
Q]y-x
TyyUy1Q0yy1Q011UUy-T1UQ0
UQ0Q0y]
UUUyy
y0U--y1Q
-1UU1y]
]QUyy11
yUyU0yUyT
UUy]uUy]QU
U-U}1UUy
yUy}Uy
1xyUy]QyUUy
]U1)TU
-U1UUy1y
]M,Q0yU
U--UUy
-x1UTy]
-y-yU
UUy1y
,1UUyUy
1xUUTyy1y
]yUy]
y1yUyUy
UyUUU
QU]yy]y
TyyyUyyUy]y
UUUy1
xyy]y
y0yy1
UUU0U
]Q0yQ]yy]
yUUUyU
TUUyYy
y1yUyU
y1UTyU
]yUyy
UTUyU
1y1yU
]yyyT
1-yyy
1QUU]
p632-1
v"N#0$
ftsTitleOverride
The British Romantics (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790-93), William Blake's main prose work, consists of a series of paradoxical aphorisms.
The frontispiece shown here was etched and printed - as were all Blake's works - by the writer himself.
The British Romantics (1 of 3)
During the period of Germany's great cultural revival, Romanticism in British literature emerged, in the 1780s, in parallel with the revolutionary struggles of the French people against the Ancien Regime. The initial passionate enthusiasm of the early British Romantics for the republican ideals of the French Revolution is reflected in Wordsworth's exhilarating affirmation 'Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, but to be young was very heaven.'
The French Revolution itself was a contradictory historical movement. It intended to establish the reign of Reason on Earth but habitually used the tools of political violence and terror. It aspired to secure universal freedom, but released the great personality cult of Napoleon. It aimed to sweep away oppression by destroying the aristocracy, but ended by establishing new forms of domination for a new ruling class - the bourgeoisie.
In the same way British Romanticism contains many contradictory aspects and impulses. To one degree or another the Romantic poets all espoused radical or liberal sympathies with the progressive forces of the time. Yet they were also responsible for developing a new self-consciousness, a new emphasis on the individual, which distanced them from the masses. They wanted to liberate literature from the possession of the old ruling class of aristocratic patrons, to find a new popular audience and to write of the experience of the poor and oppressed. Yet at the same time they saw their art as a specialized activity set apart from common life. They tried to emphasize the positive powers of the human spirit and imagination, singing of joy and delight, energy and affirmation. Yet their songs of celebration were continually shadowed by an undertone of melancholy and hopelessness, a constant return to disillusionment and failure of the will.
Certain features, however, can be regarded as the common characteristics of the English Romantics. They rejected the rules and conventions of Neoclassical civilization, and embraced artistic freedom, experimenting with many and varied poetic forms. They were out of sympathy with industrialization and the growth of the city, choosing to concentrate on rural or pastoral settings. They respected the irrational, and were not averse to writing of dreams, or of the supernatural, or experimenting with hallucinogenic drugs. They were for imagination, and against reason; for energy and against control; for revolution and against the old empires.
Romantic prose
Whereas in Europe Romanticism tended to seek a home in the novel and the drama, in Britain the movement was largely a poetic one; but it also manifested itself in certain types of prose. Among these were Gothic novels, tales of the macabre and the fantastic set in wild landscapes of rugged mountains, haunted castles and ruins. These novels are the ancestors of the modern horror story. At one level they operated as an indulgence in the casual shudder, but at another level they began to explore unresearched depths of the human psyche. The Castle of Otranto (1765) by Horace Walpole (1717-97) is a pioneer of the genre; but the most popular and successful Gothic novels were those of Mrs Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823), of which the most celebrated is The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794).
The Romantic poets were to draw on this Gothic inheritance. Indeed it was Shelley's wife, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (1797-1851), who constructed one of the most enduring myths of science-fiction terror in Frankenstein (1818). Later 19th-century novelists could also tap into this cultural reservoir for serious purposes: Emily Bront's Wuthering Heights is a tale of love, death and the supernatural with a strong Gothic flavor; yet it is recognized as one of the most extraordinary fictional experiments of the period. On the other hand the irrationality of the Gothic could be mocked by the solid common-sense approach of Realist fiction, as in Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey.
Scotland
The Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) was in some ways the most European of British Romantics. He was well read in early French and Italian poetry, studied the German Romantics, and translated Goethe. As a poet he established a taste for the medieval, and gave currency to the ballad form in his collection of ballads Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802-3).
As a novelist Scott virtually invented the historical novel, writing vivid pageants of medieval life such as Ivanhoe (1819), and more genuinely historical treatments of recent Scottish history, such as The Heart of Midlothian (1818).
Robert Burns (1759-96) was the first major poet to write in Scottish dialect. With his background as a ploughman and laborer on his father's poor farms, he was initially celebrated by the aristocratic society of Edinburgh as a 'peasant poet', and he went on to collect, edit and write over 700 dialect songs (including such well-known lyrics as 'Auld Lang Syne'). But he also wrote with facility in 18th-century English, and such verse has affinities with Neoclassical poetry. Burns deals equally with tales derived from Scottish folklore, as in his narrative poem Tom o'Shanter (1791).
Blake: poetry and revolution
The poet, painter and engraver William Blake (1757-1827) was the most consciously revolutionary and the most politically involved of the English Romantics, writing poems celebrating the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. His most successful works were the Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794), which juxtapose the linked opposites of existence, and capture perfectly the tense and conflictory nature of the age: childlike hope confronts adult disillusion, passion encounters moral oppression, the submissive gentleness of 'The Lamb' sits at irreconcilable odds with the violent energy of 'The Tyger'.
* ROMANTICISM (PAINTING)
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* ROMANTICISM IN EUROPE
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Q(P1,LT
$$$$$$H$$H,(P,H,$,M
$$$$$$$$$$H,(t,L
H$P($
(P-)P(
L$$,L
tLUP-
--11-
,$$$$$$$$$H,
$,$$$$$$$P(H,,$,L-tl
$,L$$,x
y,pHx,
P,$P$,t)
P,(t,PLtPt-tLtt
PHH,HH$$$$$$$
HHPHltl
$Ht(P,$
Mt-x$
tUP(-(
Tt,P(uPL,L,p,p,pT
Qyt$$$H
$$$$$$$H
P,p$tp,$$
$$H$$$1--p
$$,$$
$$,PHH$
-pUQ,P
$P(t(,t(t$Pp,t
H$PHHH,l
P(HP$
H,$-y,
yTyTU
$,L,,H,
,M,Py$
TP1P(
Ly,P)PPL,LPLPt(tTt
$$,,H
$$$$$$,HHH$H$$
QL-$$
t($u$$t$$
U-1Q,
Py,U,t
$$,$$
$PL,P$
,LHy,
y,1P-
P(,$,LP$,LPP(tt
,$t$$$$H$$$$$H$PH,HHH,HtlT
L,HH$,HH,p
$$$$P(t$HPU
,P$Py
t(P,H,(Q-pP(P
P$$$$$t
H$H,HHH,L
$,HPHP$tLH$
$,H,H,
,LltP9
,t(PLP,(P
$$$$,$
H,$,$$P,HP($
1t]-0
L,H,LU
,yPlU
yTP)P
,,L$t(P,pHP
tp$,$
$$$H$
$HH,$$$
Q--11
]-]y-,-
$$,$Pp,HPU
L--P($,L,,
$$$$$$$$
$,$,$,$H
tLty,y,p,P,
P$P(P$
,$1,-L-
L,$-LP,
$$$,L,
$xPp1
$,L-,P
PPL,P(,t
$H$$P
$$$HH$$,HPpP
(,p,$
]y]1)P
P$PHH,
(tLPPp,
P$$$P$t$$$l
PLt$$,LH$$Pp,
t,L-P($
,-UT-11
H,p,P
,$,Hl
Pp,PHP
$$$$,$PHP$
p,M,L,,L,l
$$H$$,HHHHH$$$Pp
PpP$$x-p,(
$$$$$,H,HP
TTt,--,$
$,H,H$P$,$
$L,L$P
,t(tP
$$$$,PH
$$$(H
P-110Q^
PH,H9
t$t$P$-
$$$,LHt
,Q(P$,$P
$$,$$$$$
$$PpPP
--p9$,
L,L$,($
QU,M,
P$tL$
$$$PLtpP,H
LH,L-$
Ux,P(
H,lPt$
P--Pa
$,p-H$
,HPL,,(
$$$$$HtLt,LPP$
$P(Ht$xtp
U$,L$
l$P,p
,H,P$
$$$t(
$,$P,p$PH,p
$,$,$,
$H,lPH-
PMxt,
$$,L,,
$,LPpH,-P
H,LH,L,$
P,$,L$tH
PHPtLPpt,
tltL-xx]
$$PH,P$t,H
QPUPL$
-,1y1P-T
P(HPL$tL
tpPHPLP
$$$$(tP
-P(-T
t$P$HH,L
PUxt-L
QP,L$,H,$,$PLtHt
tL,,L
$PPp,M,L,
$,$,HH,L,H
PyxPx
)tPttHP
-L1y\
(t$$,LH,$tL
$$$,(P
$P($HPPUP
$,p$H$$,$
u,LPp,$
,UY-1UT-1T-9
yyltL
tH,H1
TP$,L,$,$,(ttLtLtlt$t
PH0QL
,HH,$,H
TQTP,
TU0U,1x--0UT1UttLtpHtLPH,U
,$,L,$P
Pt(tHt
pHP1t
,1P(P
y,L,pP
1y01U1T11P1
1x,,lP
H,LH,x
p$PL,,$-(
PpPpP
P$,H,
PlUPt
$QL$$HP
Pt1u,P$
-1TUU]01yP-10,
y,L,HPL,
PPL,tt(H,H,
H,$,L,$
Pt$$,pPt
0xQ,L,
-$$,$$$
pH,$t
,p,L,
0y-t(HHPH,pHHH
HtHH,HHt
$,$,L,$,
$$$PH,H,$P
,x1tp-P
P--0,)P-0x-(P$,H,
LQ(t,(HPL,HPH,H,L
H,$t($$
t0M,P)
H,H,L
Pu(PP)
Q0,P),P
,P(HPLPPHtlt]yTP
P,P(P,L,,$,
$$,L,(t$
PL,HPL
,y,Q(
1,P(t
(P,M,t
lTHH,
-L$,p,$tH,$
p$P$t($
Ttt)PPL
,L,,)P$,LPHtH
t(H,p,PPL,
L$P(,t(H,
($,$,H,LHQL-T,M
,)P,pP
1t,L-P
,Q(P,(Q$
Pltptlt
P-($QL0t(,P
$,(tH$,H
(P,(P,L
PxP(t(
,PQL$,
H,pH,(tP,
PQy,Q
$,$P(P$tHUxU
,uTP(P
yPQ(Q,,P
,$,LPx
M,,,(Q-L
(Ht(PL
PHP$t
L1t,p,HTP
,xTQLP
y,pUQP
$,$t$,HP,
$t(,L$
$$$PH,$
PL-LPtpUP
LtUPp
,T,L,
P,LPL
1-L$,
Pp,$,H$
LPt($,PH,
P$,(H$,(P,
P($t$tPLty
-(PPL,,L
0u,(Q,-
,(Pyt
PQ($,L-(tLtP
$HP,$-
P$,$P
,$,tH
tLtL,L-,$$
(H,L$P$
$$$P$$
,(HH$
(t,pPpxP
y,pPMyT
y1t(,Q(,(P,
$P(PLl$
$$,LtL
tp,P(P
$$,H,H,$P$,L$
Ht($H
u,M,HPPP
UPp--
UtTty
PL,P(P-PPLPxPp9
$$P(P,$,$,$,$,$$
,$HPL,
0,QLP)x]
$1(--,
-p,PLPU
,MPP)
$P(HtL
$P$$,P
tH,($,
P$t$$$P$
$,L,P($
Q$P$H,
$$$,L,HHb
LUt,P)
yTP),P
1$$yPq,,q,
]LPUTu(P-pTt,p9
H$$,L
H,L$,H,
$,HPt)P,(tpU
t,LUPQPL,tTpt
PLt(,P$
(HH,$,H
,$u\1t
$,pPL$
t)P1,
L-PLtpt(,u,Ut
QLy,TUx-p,P
P($$$,H$,
H,,HPTM$
u-x,P-
PP(P(P-
tLtLxPP
$,(Ht$
P($,$PHP
$,$,HP
HHH,yP
$$,LP
tMQ,(
-(P-qxt
,t(,yTyP
PLyPL
P$tL$
H$,$$P
$$,H$HH
$,$$t$H0-L,
,QPLP
$LPP(QTt
(tLP$0
$,P(,$
H,$,p$P$$,$-$-$
,$$$$H$QT
PP)P]
L-(,t
$,,pP
,t,xtU$
P$P(t
$,H$$P($
$$,$,$$$$,P-
Py-L,
,,LPP(
L,PMP1
UyHLPPp,
H,L,HP
H$,$-$
$t($,$
H,,$,
P(,P(
,L$L$
,,(H,
,Ht$P
HH,$H$
$PH$$t
LPLtH
$QLPt
P(t,T$
HH$P($
$$HPLP
$HP(H$t
P1-T,P
lt,L,$$
0P)P]
PPLt,U
,$,($
($,$HP
$,$,H$$,$
T-,,-
pQPLH,
pP$$,$
y$-$yP
P$,L,P
H$HH,
$H,L$$
q-P(,PL
,p$,$
,P(t$
$$,$$
$,$H,$
$HH,$P(
,pPL$,pPH$,P
P$,$,(
$,$($$,L,H
L,(Q-P
,PH$1$
Q(,$P,
,Lt$P$$P
P$P,]
$H,$H$P$$$
Q1,L-,ptPP
Q,H$P$
$PP(H,,
P-,Q0
-01Q$,
P$$,P
$L$,$
PM0,M
Q(U-(
t-(xP
H,,$$
,yP$-
,L,-1,P(,-,Ty
tL$,$
yTtyU
$$,l,L,($
L,H-L
$$,$P$$$$
H,,PLt)
Q0$Q,
LP($PL,P(
LyTtUP
L$,$$,$
$$PLH,HP$
-LP,$$$$$
u,($P(,y
uxUtTQ
$HPLH
UP-,-
(QLPt(PtT
(,QTuxTy
,Lt,M,y,UT
HP$,H,
y,M,M
Q,y,(PP
PL,$P(,$
H,x$,L
tLUP-t
-Lt,L,(P
$tHl,P(
,(y,P$,
$P(t,
,pl$$P$
,$$1PxQL
,(txP
(,Q,P1
(t(xt
P,L,$
$t-Pp,L,PxP
PL$$,L$$
$,(PQLP
t,pPL-T
H$,L$
Tt-(-
PM$PH
U,Ly,$PPMP
tT$,$$,
H$,(,U$y
,q,xPQP
LPHH,($
(P(P-PUx
t(QP$T
,t($$
$yPP(t$$,L
pyPP$,$,$
$U,L,(H-
UxUyT
HPpt(1
$,$-H,$
11T1Q
uH$P,
t(P,L$$$$
L,,LPL
$,xPPU
$,H,(P,$
(Pp$$
P$Plt
1U-T1
,)Q(,
,P,p$t(
,L$,$$P
t(P,(P-]t
,P,L,x
91)1P1
$PL,)t(
yTty,$
,H(Pt(Ux1
,pUP)
L,$$PH$
P$,t(u
$,)P)t
,t,(t(
p,tpTt
L$$t(,UtxP
P(tH0
L-,L,L,
,p0,y
x$$,(P
txxPq
,L-QPy$,P
$,L-$,L
)xy,L,P$
($,$LPH
P(Pt(U,yT
,P$,pPPT
P$,U,($,L
pT$yP
H,pPy
1]L1t1
t1P(y
(Q-,Q
-L,%P,(
,$,L$
$,tLPyt(yP
P,-H,(
$,$,tL
QLP-x
,$HPpHtL
H,$,$
lPU$-
y,P$U
L,P$,$
tH1P-
,pPP(
P(u$,L,pPtpt
PPH-x
t(tp,y,y0
$,ltLtP
tHPtPx
$,L,$,t
PL,t,yT
l,$tpHPtL
Pp,,yTtU
P($,,L$
tlt$,L,ptPptpP
,HHHP
,,P$M,,$
UTPPPpPH,p,
,$PTL,Q$
,T,P(Q
P$,($
$$,$P
xPPLP(,
$,UP-1
Q(TPP
p,p,tPTLPPP
$--U1,
$,$Q$
,$p$,,pP
LQPp1P,p,PLtLtt,L
TP(,t,M,
Q,U-L
$,$-xPL
tLP,L$,$
,yTP,--P(
QLt,,
,p,LHPLP,(tLPPL,P,t)
y,P)$,P$,$
Pt(,,L,(
,xPU1)P
$,tLt
tH,HH,PLt)P$,yPy
PL,P$P,$x
t]MTQ
$$(t,
Lt($,P)t,p-,t(
P$tp,$,(t)
L,$,L
$,$,t(t,LP,p
(,x$,p
QL,(u
,t(P(
tMP)ty
$,)P,($,,pt
(PQMPP
y,L,tH
,L,L,P(P$
,PMtP]
tUt,tp,t(tU
MT1QUx
P$tpTP
Pp,yPyU
xUxPP(QPpP(H1
u$,pTP
UP(P,
Py,,,,,t(H,,
P(-L$,L,u
,,P(H,L,
PP,L,$,0
$P,P,(Q1x
PPLt(P(
P(H,$
H,)PLyt
tPp,tPP
Pt$-P(yPpPt(y
,U]$$y
$,,L$PU
PL,MP,MPup,yx
,L,PLy
,tp,t(,
PLP,,LPu
H,LtH,$
(xtUP1
$-,p,M,,
QL,pT
($txPLT
uUP0(1
$$tLPP
,p,uP0
PL1P,)P(t
,LPLP
t-TPyL
1t,(P,-P
PP(xyP($
H,1yT$
t(P($
,t,uLQ,
p,tT$
(P,L,$$
PM,$,Pl
t$,(,H,L,
Ppt(H,l
TP(PL,L,
P,ytTx-$
,y,$$tl
xUP(PPPHP,
PL,H,l
HtTP(t
$,1tP
L,H$x
Q(t,p-P
P(Q(xPP
,Q(P,
P(P,(
(P-L-(xQ1TU
,M,$0
L-t),L,
U,$$-
tTxt1P
-(P,(
Qx,q]
tPt(U
L-T,M
P-MP-(Q$$
$-q,L,$
,,)P,
P(,yTt
Q(,P(
),Q)T
tH$HHt
t,)P-L,(Q,,
P$,$$
yPtLPP
--(,P--(
tLP11
ly,,($,L
P-(Q,L-Q
x]$PP$
L$,Ut
,U-$Q
(Q,$,
,,u$P
(U-,$,
$,$,,
PytTx
PL-tL
$-,M,
$P($,$,
y,utU
PpTtP
$,q,,
tp,pHPPU$
pt,Pp
PpUxU
P$,L,$
QPM,-
),$-P(
tLtpP
L,$,L,t(
,tLPLH,
\ylP-$
P$,LtTy
H,PL,
QxPtLPt
HQ(,$
L,,t(tP
x,pHPLP
,tp,P
-L,P(tx
(,,H,
ttpPt
$$-PP
P),M,L,
tT$p,PL$,$
P(P-,p
(,$,(
yPp,PPL$
TutPL,
(PLP,
,p,(,P(
Q),t(u
t(P(P$P
y,$PH1
H,L,,(
$(Q,L,Q(,x,xPPLt($
P(P$,$,P($$
,pPL,x
Pt,(Q
L,(HUPUty
,p,$t
Q,xUQ,MPp$,
PH,yx
tPt$,L
-(P1$
P-$,L,L$,xMT,LP
(P$,(P
$,$$$
H,$$P
Pyx,tLtt
LPp,p,
lty,pQMTu(
(t-L,,ty-t
P)tL$$x,tHPxy
PH-)P]
,-x,t(,
,PL,,P(,($
$,H,$
$,(HPty]
$ltLH
1UP(P,
yxPQ(PQL-P(uP
LH,P$P,$P($
TxPx-
,p,tT
lH,P),Q(,t(,p,,
p,Q]y
$H$,$$
$,pPt
lHtH,LQx1
lHPpP(P,L-P),P-L,L-
TP$,HPpP(P,$,H$,$,
y1,ltLt
P$HPpHPUT
(P-)T
tLP,-xQpPMTPt)
$,(tLP,
t(P,L$,H,P$$
Uy,pl
Ht(,U,
t,(P$
HHH(P)
MPty,PQL1PLu
HQLtt$,M,L
,H$,(t(P
P,HPp
Ht,LPU
yl$$t,,
PLPPp,t1L,$,
P$,$,(P(t$P$t$
Lt,pP
yHH$P
P)$0tPL,tLQ
Utx$,
P(,P(tH,H,$$,
-bt(P,,
L$H,($,),PM,HPtLt(,
H$Q(t]
LPP$P(P
p,P,L,$,
$P$,L
QLPH,py
P$P$xLt1
,L,H,L$P
QL-$PpP
(-l,$y
LP,t,y1
yPMPt
-(Q,$
P-$(P,L,$,)PPLPt
t(P-t
,L,)PH,(
lt$LP
,Qp$$]
P,P(,,
-M,p,,p
UP-PLPL,-x
]t($,$P($,$P(P
LH,P(t
0-L,$-
$),P$1
),Q,(P
P,$$,tpt
PP,PLx
PLP(P,$
y,P-(u
H,QLtT
TPp,(P
$H,$,)
L,L-L,P
tLPM0t$
P$,H,p,Pl,
PP(u,
-t(P,)x
,PLP-L,-
lHPLP$t(tPL,$U
$yPpt
LP,Qp
-LUP(
($$,$,L,
-pPL,$
,u(P,$1,,lP
,$P$,t(PpH,$
PtpPpH
P,y,,
ttL$U
(tLPHP,$
u,LPtP
t-ptPL]
L,(Q1P,
L,$,Q
($,P$
MPtLt
P,HPpt
($,LPp,HP
(tL,y
L$,$,P
1,M,,$
QLtH,
LP,$P
$,L,^
-T1y]y
$,$,$
P),L$1t(
PLtH,LP
-1x-P(P
UP(,Q(
plPp,$,
$$tQy
UU1PQ
t)H,,pPLPy
x,-y0
$$PLPPL,L-
P(P(,U
,,)P,
q,$,M
($,p,
q,P-LPp,t,x
yPUt1
$,$,H
p,P)t
(y,t,PU
Qu$L,
LPP)P
HP$-$1$,
,pPQLP
,H$(t,
$,u,M,,)$
MPL,)P$
M,-L-,P,
M]l,L
,L-,M,
,M,,M,1
,ux-(P
$-L,L-
P)P,$
Q,Q(,Q
M-,(t
,-,)-
P(Q--0t
,(PQL]
-,(,L-T,
(-Q,(
$,Q(-,x
P-(PL
t-(Q0u,
(Q,M,p
,Q,(P,]
$u(U,-p
(,-LP
-T,P)
$(-,q0
,$,LP
,(--y
tU-,LPQ
,Q,UP
,--Pt
t-1PQ
T1P)t
,M0Pt
yxt-xPy
y]uTyTy
UxPPQ
pTPLU
Py$t,
LlPxU
p632-2
ftsTitleOverride
The British Romantics (page 2)
ftsTitle
Lord Byron in Greek national costume, by the painter Thomas Phillips. Undeterred by the handicap of a club foot, Byron led a fiercely energetic, flamboyant and sometimes debauched life. Living in exile in Europe from 1816, he went to Greece in 1824 to aid the nationalists in their struggle against the Turks, and died of marsh fever at Missolonghi in 1824.
The British Romantics (2 of 3)
The 'Lake Poets'
The 'Lake Poets' was the collective name given to Wordsworth, Coleridge and their lesser associate Robert Southey (1774-1843), all of whom lived in the English Lake District for long periods after 1800. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) developed the use of imagination and feeling to explore a deeper understanding of human relationships and social existence. The natural landscape and peasant inhabitants of the Lake District, where he was brought up, provided the substance for much of his poetry. In 1795 Wordsworth had met Coleridge and, as neighbors in Dorset, the two poets worked closely together, publishing the Lyrical Ballads (1798), a collection of poems dealing with common life, and written in popular ballad and lyrical forms. Despite his desire to reach out towards the common people, and his image of the poet as 'a man speaking to men', Wordsworth was the great poet of the self. In his huge psychological epic The Prelude (1798-1805), he attempted to link the development of his own experience with the revolutionary changes of his age.
The poetic gifts of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) were in some ways the opposite of Wordsworth's. His imagination dwelt on the strange and fantastic and on dream and hallucination. His contribution to the Lyrical Ballads, 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner' - the tale of a nightmare sea-voyage and an enduring myth of psychological extremity and isolation - is regarded as one of the great poems of Romanticism. His 'Kubla Khan', supposedly half-remembered from an opium dream, creates an exotic Romantic landscape of the mind. With their use of the narrative and figurative devices of the popular ballad, both poems imprint themselves indelibly on the imagination, and are deservedly two of the best-known poems in the English language.
At the same time Coleridge was the great intellectual among the British Romantics: together with his poetry, he experimented with the characteristic forms of European Romanticism, philosophical discourse, cultural theory and the drama. He often failed to complete such projects, as if in him the visionary poet and the Romantic intellectual were at odds.
The second generation
Lord Byron (George Gordon Byron, 1788-1824) epitomized the more flamboyant aspects of Romanticism, and lived out the fantasies of his own verse. In the triumphantly successful Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812) Byron established as a typical Romantic figure the type of the melancholy, isolated 'Byronic' hero, exiled from his native land for some nameless and mysterious crime. Having scandalized public opinion by a rumored liaison with his half-sister (who probably bore his child), Byron left England in 1816 and lived the rest of his life in continental Europe, where his verse remains popular today. His most substantial achievement was in a vein of Romantic satire, combining wit and sentiment, passion and humor, that remained relatively undeveloped in England. Its most effective expression was his epic satire Don Juan (1819-24).
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) and John Keats (1795-1821) are often linked together like Wordsworth and Coleridge, but the respective imaginative impulses of their poetry are almost opposite. In his elegy on the death of Keats, Adonais (1821), Shelley compared life to 'a dome of many-colored glass' that 'stains the white radiance of Eternity'. Shelley's poetic search was always a quest for that white radiance, the unblemished purity of the eternal. In politics he was an extreme radical and a utopian idealist: his vision of progress was realized in great utopian poems like Prometheus Unbound (1820), or channeled into harsh satirical anger against existing political conditions, as in The Mask of Anarchy (1832).
Keats on the other hand was fascinated by the colors, the appearances and the sensations of physical existence itself. His characteristic achievement, in poems like the great Odes (To a Nightingale, On a Grecian Urn, To Autumn; 1820), was a poetry which simultaneously achieves through a rich and sensuous language a firm grasp of physical reality, while acknowledging the elusive transitoriness of all things. Shelley was a transcendental, Keats a materialist poet. Yet each represents something fundamental to Romanticism.
* ROMANTICISM (PAINTING)
* CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* ROMANTICISM IN EUROPE
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
lHPHt
TtplH
TxTPlP
HxPp,P
PlPL,(
t$TPP
(ll,yP
PH,$,
P$$t$
,$PP,
tltPL
1Pt$,
PLH0$
,L$,P
tLtLH$P
$$HTt$ltP
,p,pl
t$PtT
$,H,$
pPuLH
tPLt(,t
t$PL,p
H$,$,H,$
ttLtP
PUttpP
lt(lx,HtP
p$tLtPL$,
,$PH,l
ptPt(lPp
,PLt$,
pPpHtHP
ptt(l,ptP
H,$,$,$
,HHtpH,L-$
l,LPPH(t
Pp,tP
plPtLt
LH,p,PL$t
$,$,$
(lt,p
pt,$(
PltpltL
P$l$Pp
tlPLt
ttLP$,ptpT
P,(t,
lPLlPt
p$tl,LP
,HHPt
P$P($PP
$$P,(H
L$,lt
ltll,,$,H
$t($H
,pt(tL
PLP$t
PLP($
H,ltLP
$tlt(t(
PPHt(
$Hlt(
$t$H,
,(,PPp
tpPHL
P$PLltPP
HP(P$
tL,t(,(
,PLt,
x$P,$
,(,p0t
(,pH$P(
PLP,,pPPHt
PHHtx,$Pt
PPlPtp
t$P,p,$$
,HPLlt
Plp$t
ptPHlP
,LPL,
H,p$,
$,$,$$
,t,p$PtL
$PLt$t
$$,$$
HP$l$,
tPpTt
t$PLl,
lHt(t
HHPl,
$tPLtH
t$t($P
H,H,pH
PHPpt,
($$PL
HPPlt
$,p,l$,H$
P$tHPtl
LtptTP
PH$P$
l$ltl
lPllPllt
PP(,P$,H
Plx$,
PPpPLlU
t($TP
$lHl,
$lPHltl
LHHlt
tptHH
Pp,$$t
l$P$pPt
pPlltH
llPl$
HtpPpH
tHP$H
HH,$tH
$lPL,t,pP$
Ppltll
lt0tL
tlPLl
t(lPp$
tlt$,
,P$Pl
ltL$tHP
,l,PLtL
,lHtPH
$,pltUtLt
l$lHHltlP
tHP$PL$
HPLltL
PltH$,H
llPpPx
tLHtll
PHPpltL
(H,l$P
ltl,l
lPplt
HlP$,
PtLPl
p$lxl
($HH,
,PpTH(tL
$$,$$
tlP$
tllt$$
,lP,ptLH
,HHtlt$P
H$PLl
P$$P$
lltpP
t$Plt
tplt$tpP
tl,$H
lTPll
Ppl,llt
H,HP$1
lH,lt(l,pH
tlPLt
Lt$Pl
ltPHtL
t(lx,
Lt,lP
lTlxH
tHHPllxPtH
UtLtLH
HP$HH
$$t$$
ltlHH$
plPll
LtP$H
,LllH
tp$,H
tPlHP
PH,$$
tllH$
tlHl$
HtH$,
,H$,$$,l
PtP(t
H$$tH
HH$HPLH
,$$tLP$l
,H$tH
PP$H$
,tPtl,H
$H,$$
PL,lt
HPtP$
$HtLl
ttHPt
$,ltlP
$l$,$$
HPltP
pPptl
,$H$H
$,$,$
llt(lt
ltlPP
Q$tlP
L,lxT
$tP$$
tpllt
xtltLxP
PlHPlPt
PtLtP
xlxPL
$,$HH
$P$P$t
P$t,$
LttLt
$,$$H,
H,lPP
HPPLP
L$$lP
$,P$ll
$t(tp,lt
PPltPt,
PpltP$
$t$,tP
tLxtp
PHHlH
t(ltllt
HH,lPtl
$HPtl
$$,HPH$
($P(P
tlt(tPll
Pptt(lP
$$lt$l,
p,,LP
l,l$t
$PllP
tlP$t$TP
$HPl$P
$ll,l
$PlPL$
,tLPltL
t$PHHPH
tH$HP$
tLttLt
yPpP$
$$PH,p,
PpHPp
LHH,Pl
ll,Ty
H,pPPH
HH,l$
,$P$tp
PLtUT
t]L,P
tlt,l,l,
tpltlPpl
H,$,H
PLHH,$lP
HPPHP
PlPLlP(Pp
,$$,H
pPP$P
tplPL$P
Hlt(PH,
$,H,$$H
$PHPpT
PllttpH
lHllxlL
lxltL
t(Hl$
$$Ht(t,
,,(tH
ltx$PLtPp
Tltll,
$t(t(t
HPpPLl
$tP(,
tHPL,H$
t(HP$
tHPp$
plPPp
HPpP$
,$,p$P
,PptPplt
,pPL$
PLtL,p
plLltLP
pPpPp
Llt,H
tLHPLPtHt,
p$,p,tLtPH
PpPtH$
PtLtlHP
tPpt(t
LPLt$
t$lplt
pH,H,
lt,lPL$
pt,pt
$ltLt
x,pPt$
PptPp,tpP
tLtPpPl,t
H,t,$
tLPLtt
$tPLP
p,(tPLPL
,L,tH
t,ptT
H,LPp
(PPL,
$,(tLP
t$,L,
(t,pP
H,,p,P($tL
$P$PLP(P
L,t(t,(t
$$PLt
tLtPtt(t
,LP,(PPp
$,$,L
tPptP
$$P(P
Ltt(xtPpPp
ttLPPp
PpQpt
LPt(tt(t,p
PptPp,
t($,p
tHPLPtLPPL
PttLt,t(t
(tLPLtpP
LPp-t
0txPpPttp,
Pxt(xP
tp,pP
x,x,p
tPptPt
tyPpt,
,xPpPttL
PptLt,p
PqtPp,
,t(P,$l
,($P(t
PtPtLt(
-L1Q,
UtLt,P
tt($,
ptPyTPP
H,$$tPl
Ut,$T
P$tPL
LtLtl
t(Hl,
ttLP,
p1U,U,,L
tPH$(
(t(t(
tLt,,
P$tTt
H,tp,
tLtH$
LlP$,l
H$pPl
t(,tl
$Ht$$
-p,t(
lPLHLl
$$Ppl
$,TH,
,lltT
Hl,ltP
MP(P(P
HH,$$
$PPHPt(PPL
($,$t
llPpP
ltplPt
,y$Pp
,HPtHP
p632-3
ftsTitleOverride
The British Romantics (page 3)
ftsTitle
An illustration of William Blake's poem America, a Prophecy'. Blake's illustrations of his poems were an integral part of his work.
The British Romantics (3 of 3)
Dream and disenchantment
Romantic poets either died young, with their dreams and aspirations intact, or they lived on, like Wordsworth, into old age and disillusionment. The dreams and passions of Romanticism were as hard to grasp and retain as the utopian aspirations of the French Revolution. The final note of Romanticism always seems to be one of melancholy disappointment, a feeling that (in Wordsworth's line), 'there hath passed away a glory from the earth'. Later poets who revived and extended the Romantic inheritance also inherited these contradictions. The poetry of the great Victorian Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-92) continually poses a set of irreconcilable conflicts between desire and duty, dream and reality, pleasure and public life. His poem The Lotos-eaters (1833) strikes a fine balance between criticism and admiration for the lives of those who give themselves up to Romantic dreams. In Ulysses (1842) he contrasts responsibility to the world against Romantic longing for a better.
THE BROWNINGS
With Tennyson, Robert Browning (1812-89) was one of the great poets of the early Victorian period that followed the Romantic age. In 1846 he secretly married Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-61), herself a lyric poet of some distinction. They were to enjoy 15 intensely happy years together.
Browning concentrated initially on verse drama, but found his preferred mode of expression in dramatic monologues, in which he applied a penetrating psychological realism to a variety of historical and fictional characters. His masterpiece in this form is The Ring and the Book (1868-69) - the account of a murder case in late 17th-century Italy. Told by a succession of speakers presenting subjective points of view relating to the murder, and pervaded by prodigious learning, a love of the grotesque and a feeling for the period, The Ring and the Book is one of the great long poems in English.
Honore de Balzac had a prodigious appetite for work. He was sustained in the task of writing his vast novel sequence 'The Human Comedy' - and very probably poisoned - by large quantities of strong black coffee.
Fyodor Dostoevski by the Russian painter Vassily Grigorievich Perov in 1872. Much of Dostoevski's life was beset by crippling problems, including imprisonment for radical political activity in his youth, gambling debts, and family bereavement. In his last years alleviation of his financial difficulties came with public recognition both in Russia and throughout Europe.
Realism and Naturalism (1 of 3)
The term Realism is commonly used to describe works of art that appear to represent the world as it is, not as it might or should be. It can be applied to literature (and painting) from almost any period, but is especially associated with those 19th-century novelists and playwrights who claimed to be giving detailed, accurate and objective descriptions of life, in sharp contrast to what they saw as the idealizing and even sentimentalizing of their 18th-century predecessors.
To some extent this charge was unjust. Realism as a self-conscious literary movement had already appeared in early 18th-century English drama, and gathered strength in the novels of Defoe, Richardson, Fielding and Austen. These writers prided themselves on truthfulness to life, strength of feeling, moral seriousness and common sense - all features which have remained the dominant conventions of Realism. The term Realism, however, first appeared in France in the 1830s when it was used to characterize the work of Balzac and Stendhal.
French fiction
The enormously prolific Honoru de Balzac (1799-1850) embarked on the long series of novels collected as La Comudie humaine ('The Human Comedy') in 1829. His aim was to paint a comprehensive portrait of French society in the early 19th century. He does this by creating hundreds of characters and settings, some of whom recur, giving the sense of a complete world - a practice followed by many later writers. Among the masterpieces of 'The Human Comedy' are Old Goriot (1835), and Lost Illusions (1837-43), both of which chart the frustrated ambitions and disillusionment of young heroes in a callous and self-seeking society. Balzac is famous for his attention to physical detail, but his main interest is in psychology; and while he delights in describing everyday life, he is also fascinated by the melodramatic and the macabre: misers, murderers, poets and madmen.
To this extent he is not only a Realist but also a Romantic, like his great contemporary Stendhal (the pen name of Marie-Henri Beyle; 1783-1842). But where Balzac is sensational, Stendhal is ironic; where Balzac presents the world objectively, Stendhal shows it to us through the minds of his protagonists - especially in Le Rouge et le noir ('Scarlet and Black'; 1830) and The Charterhouse of Parma (1839).
Stendhal's subtler and more disturbing notion of reality - as something conditioned by the way we perceive it - was developed by Gustave Flaubert (1821-80). Flaubert was an aesthete: that is to say he saw the reality of human life as a squalid business redeemed only by the beauty and perfection of art. For him and for his disciples, including the short-story writer Guy de Maupassant (1850-93) and the novelist Marcel Proust, Realism is not so much a matter of copying reality as of reconstructing it in language. In Flaubert's Madame Bovary (1857), the story of a provincial housewife who drifts into debt and casual affairs is worked into a highly finished masterpiece in which the contrast between the novelist's everyday material and his exquisite workmanship is powerfully ironic. Sentimental Education (1869), described by Flaubert as 'the moral history of the men of my generation', shows artistic, emotional and social ideals destroyed by contact with reality.
* ROMANTICISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
LtPpPPLPH
Lttp,tLP,
tPpPt(
LPP$P
L-H,$PLt
LPPp,tLtPL
-$,LH
HPPHPp,t(t
,L,H,
($,H,PLtPp
pPPHLPP
pPPH,
PPtLPLH,
$,(PH,H,
ptLtP
LPPLP
P(,t(tH
$-P(-
txPxtPL,P(
tt(t,pH
$,P(P)P$P
PxtPL,P(-
tLPLt,p,
pPxtx
xPx$t
(tLt]
xTxTtxtT
p,,)P,$
PLPtP
TxPL,T
$,(Q(P$tM
H,LT-
Tt,P(P,M
HtMPLt(
PttLxU
xt,p$
,$tQH
$$P($
tLt(P,(
tH,tP
P,pPxt
P($P(P
tTxHxt
,p,pt,
t$xUy
TtTtp
P,(P$$
P,($$
$PpPtpTxP
UxPP($
$,L,,P
tQPLP(t
xTyxP(
,,(P,L$
,HxPt
UtpPpU
P,p,t
,LtHPyx
Tt,L,L,$
lHPp,H
txyxPtt
tPL,L-,,$
1tPH,L,(-,
pQplxU
TtTt(P
(,,L$
PLP,P),
$,PLx
t(,L,-
L,P)t,yPyT
tx$,$$
xPxPt(P
,L$,$
PLHPP(H,L$
$,p,tTyxx
,L,t(
P,p$tMtqPU
($P-)
TttLxT
xLt,L,,
t(,(H,$$
$,)PQ,LP
P(P(uPpP
xPP(,L$,
(,H,$P
UxytP$
LP(P,
tTtxTtt
tp,P$Q
,Ht$P
(P,L-
yxPLPL-P
t,,(P
tLtxPtP
P(,,$
PHPL$,p$,
yPy,pP
xPxtpPt
xPptPp,$tT
tt(tp,(,L$
$,$,H,tL
yPxtLP,
tLtPL
(tLtP
LPtPL-P$
PxuTtp$P$,
tt(tP
lPptPptp
UxtTP(uTt,
tLtPpQ
TxPyT
(,H,,P
$$HP,
-L-L,$
H,LP$
UtxUxU
PL$$,H$
PPLP(P(P$,
$,HP$
,p,,H,$
P$,$$
p,,L,,$
$,M$$,
,L,$$
P$,H$
,(P,$
tPLH,
t$$tP
$tPxt
,t($,$
$HHPpPt
H$,$$
tHtH,
$,LHPP(Q(H
,M,-L-$$,$
$H,pPpP
H(tQxH,
q,pQ0u,PLx
,M,,P
Py,(P,,L,$
$LPPp
,ttLxTt,p,
x,t,uTuTty
,y,t(u(,L,
$xxHP
(,L,$,$
,l,tpP
tpTtxtPxQt
xQxyTyTyxT
UtxQPQ,u,
Q(u,L$
,LxPLPPH
,L,L$,$
$,tpPptT
uxQxUxxyTx
yTyxxU
TyxUxQ
P1P(t
PL,pt
,L,P$
pPxtTtxTyT
yxUxUxU
xUPUQ
(t(,p,$
,pPP(t,($,
,$,LtLt
Pp,t$
ttTtxPyxx
xUxyTy
,Pp,PLP,H
plPtpP
,P(t,p,t(P
$tPpxTxtU
tPL,P($$H
tTyTQ
xxPQ(
,L,t,p,p,t
(P-(-P$
tTyPP(
t$,($$
p,t,p,tQL,
xtLytUx
tLt(tt$P
uTtP(
(t(t(PLPPQ
xUyTxyyxU
tpPp,HP
t(t(H,L
PptTt
y\xPxyx
UtPxuTxU
xQtTtpt
L,L,t(tt(,
Pp,tTtUy
tPtLtt
LPPL$H,$,$
$,$PptP(P
t,$$,
xQxuTyx
tPP$$,L$,
xttLttL
PPL,$
P,-PP(P
uUxlt
tPp,t
ltTttLuxy
,pPpT
$,$$H
PHH,$$,$,
PlHlx
$,L,t
,LHl,$,
$llxTt
P(H,$$
PH($,L$
,$PHP
$,H,$$
(,LHP,$
($,,L,($P$
xxTtT
uPP$,,$
$P$HH,y
$P$,P(,H,L
,,P$,$
,L,,$,(P-t
PyPLtLu
,L,P,L
,L$,L
HH,$xP
H,LPP(,P(P
(P(PP
PLxuxQ
xuPuxytPp,
p-LPL,t(,(
lHHPLt,
H$P$,HHt
UtTyTyxT
yxPyPyPy
p,tp,P,L,Q
pPtLP
$P($,p
UxTxyTxuLx
PPpPp-p,,L
PpHPLPt
PH,HP(
TxUxUxx
yUxytTupPp
Pxt)t,L,,
tPLPt
$P)xUu
UtTtxP
ytxPpPP(t,
HPLPPptTtT
tTxPpQx,L,
LPPtp
,$(P,q\
uxQTt(t0,P
,pH(t
t(tPp,,P,L
xUtxPxu
0t(,M,P
HtHPtLP
t,L$yPx
xUtUtPq,ut
PptPp,pt(
-LPt(t,
yxQxt1t(,P
LttLtP
TytQp,-
Tyt(P($
PptLl
UxTytUt(Q
tUt,UP
TxPtx
TyxUt(y
PL,Q-
TyxPxtUP
tTtLtx
TyyTtyPP
xQP(,$
TytxPp,y
xTuxQt(t
TxtTtTt(
xUtxPL,,
xUtxTQP(P
PxtLt
TyxUtP(P,P
xtUtxU
PpPL,P
yTyuTuTxU
ytp,P(
Q$,$-
$LtxP
Q(P)P$P$,$
ltPHH$
t(-$P
,-P,)
Lt,H,HP
LtPH,
pP(PP
x,$Q(
$,(,Q
$,$-(
lPtpP
xPxp,
$),P(
PpttP
LtpPp
(P$PLt,
tlxxH
PL,-$
H,L-$,
pPttxPp
TtxPtl
-$,L-P
tLxPtT
$,P$P$,
$-L,H
PptPt
,P$P(
PttPp
L$P(,-$
Q,$-$
pPpPptP
$,P($
,L,,(P(P-$
lPt($
(P,L,(P$P,
$,t(P,(,
,P,L,(P($P
t,,L,P(Q
(,,H,P$(,P
\P,$P
P-,t)P,(P
(,P(P,(P,Q
$,L,L
-,(P,,P(P(
,P(P),P$,
pPt(P,$,
(P-(P),$,L
$,$-P(Q,
pPtPp,P,pP
H,(,P
(P,(P(,P($
,(P,P(-($
$tLP,L,
-(P,P,(Q(Q
(P),P
(P,L$,L,P
),L$,$,(Q,
,L-($
,,(,P(,M,,
L-P(P(P(,M
,t(P,M
,P$,(Q,,(P
,$,$Q,)P-(
PtL,(P,
L-P(,L-P
(PP(,)P,M,
tL,,P)$P)
,P),L-P(,-
L,Q(,Q
P(,-(
,P,,(P(
P$,-P(
,P(P(P-$,P
(P(,$,
PLH,$-(
M,L-(Q-
(Q,)P),P)P
HPp,P(
$P,($,L,,P
,(P(P,-$,M
P,$,($P(Q,
-L,(Q-
P)$,$
tPH,(,L,P)
$,(,L-(Q,)
,P)$,
Pp,L,H,,)P
(Q,Q,)P
(Q,M,P
,$,L,,L,P%
,M,)P-)-Q
),P(,
,L$,L-
(P-(Q,M,M,
)P$,Q$,M$Q
(P$,M
(Q,)P,)-I,
Q$,$Q(,I
,)P,)P-L-I
,),)$
-I,)P-L--(
P,M,P)$
P,(Q,),Q(P
-),Q)P
-($P(P)
M$-L-P
(PP(,(Q(P,
,$,$,L,Q(
P),-),Q$,Q
,I,($,,(
P-L,L
,,L$,
P$,L-(P,P)
Q,),Q,(-L,
LP,L$
,,L-,P)-(Q
,(P(Q(P(P,
,,L-,M1P(P
-(P,Q(-,P,
,,L,-L-,)P
(Q,L,
$,$P$
(P-,M,Q
,(Q,L,(
,Q(-L-P)
-(P(Q,)P,P
,$P$,P)P$,
,)P(P
(-(P$,L-Q)
,P),Q(P(,P
-$P)P,P$,L
-,(,P(P-(P
,,P(,P
P(-$,(,L,
,L,P,M,-L,
-(P(,P)
M,,L,(,L,,
L,Q(P)PPp,
P$,$,(P(P
$,L$,L,-L-
P-L,,L,
-,Q(,P
,M$,$,
(P$,M,-L-(
,L-,M,Q(P,
$P$,$,L
,P(P(P(,L,
,L,,P(Q,M,
(Q(,P)
PL,P($
LP,($,
-L,(P(
P,),Q(P,)P
xPP($,
,L$,L,,Q
(,,M,Q($,
P,(Q(-,L
,L,Qy,$
L-LP,$,-$
H,(Q(P
,M,Q(,P(Q,
,TP,L1P
P,($,-(,L,
L,),$,
,-L,,
P(P,-,)
,M,q,
-)P$,$,L,P
L$,Q,L-P
tt-tPL,,
($,(Q(Q,,
L,(,H,)P$,
Q(,L,,(P,)
P,M,,
t(Q($
(P,)P(Q(,,
L-P)P
,-,,M
-$,$,L
,M,(P,(P
(P,L,Q(-,M
,L$-L-M
L$,P($,P
,L,$,)P,(
,L,,L,-(
P-L,)P,-L,
$,Q$,(P$,M
,$,$,(P,P(
P-M,-Q
$,)P-
,)P,L-
$,M,$P$-(P
(Q,(,(P(
,P)P,(
$-$Q(P
,(P,(P,,
,,(P,L,P
,M,L,$)
($,$,
(P,($P
P$,$,$-$
P(P)$Q
$P$P$
,-L,-P
)$,(,
$,P$,L
L$,$,$,($
,$P(Q
(Q,M,(,$
$P),$
Q,L$P(,
,tp,T
L,$,$
,(Q($Q
($,$,(Q,P
(Q$-$$,
$P,)$Q
(P(-L
P,,L,(P$
P,,$-
xPxtxPxt
P)$-$
L,,L,P
$$Pl]
TtTtP
pPtpPtL$
$,$-(
$-Q($Q$
tPxPl
PxtxPpPtpP
tpPtpPtLt
(P(-L$
tTtPpPtpPt
tpPtLt(t,$
($-$,
xPtpPLPtp
Pp,p,tp,
P($,$
,$-$P$P)
tUxTPt
PxPt(
Pt,pPt(t(P
L-,(P
tTyxUTyy
TtxtPtLP
t(t(t,LP
L,M$-
PpPLH,(H
,lP(H,
,H,($
xyTPP
Pt(PH,(P
-L$P(PHP(
P(H,HP
tLP$P$PH1
1tH,H,(H,(
H,H,$,
H,LH,LH,L,
ptPtLPLPH,
,H,$P$
($-$,
Ty\H0
LttLtpPpt,
pHPLH,H,$
TtxPxtxP
xtLtPtptPp
PtLPHt($
tpPtptLtPp
tPpPpt,
PpPtLttp
pPtPp
tptH,(
L,L,LPtP
$P$$0]
TtLPpH,
H,H,$,pPLH
$$,$,HH,
PPH,H,H,H,
H,L$,L,L$$
tLtLH,H,$P
$,$,$
PHlP$,
PL$$,
lP,L$,$$,
tL$P$,L,$$
)$,(P
TttLPHH$
ltLt,H,(H
,HPH,$
,$PpTt
tH,t(H
,HPtP
t(tPt
tpPptH,
$tLtptP
PLtPtPpP
x,pH$
,tpxPptLH
LtPptPP
tPptP
PptPpPt,
H,pPp
tPpttLH
ptHt(tPpPP
P,(P$
tLtPL
H,HPLPPp
t$PLHPpH,$
PLP(,H
xl,H,
H,lPpt
THPLP,t
$PHUx
Lt,p,H
tLttLttP
TxPL,
TtpPtpPp
PptPpttLl
,pPt(P
ttLtPtLt
,,tpPtH
P$PLTt
Ptpt(
PLtxTt
,(,H$$
$$,HPLPL
txPt0
xPL,,
TxPx,LH
TttLP
$t(tx
Px,t(
xyPp,P$$
PP(,L
P(tLx
xUxTtLP
yPxtLP,
TyxPPp
xtLPL
xyTxP
xUxPxPpP,p
TtTPTt(P(
t0t0P0$,
xTx,L
p634-2
ftsTitleOverride
Realism and Naturalism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Fyodor Dostoevski by the Russian painter Vassily Grigorievich Perov in 1872. Much of Dostoevski's life was beset by crippling problems, including imprisonment for radical political activity in his youth, gambling debts, and family bereavement. In his last years alleviation of his financial difficulties came with public recognition both in Russia and throughout Europe.
Realism and Naturalism (2 of 3)
The Russians
Irony - the perception that things are not what they seem - is perhaps the main link between the French and the Russian Realists. In other respects Russia, which had almost no literary traditions to speak of before Pushkin, is very different. On the one hand 19th-century Russian writers were profoundly and directly involved with the great social and political debates of their day. On the other, they often display a freedom and scope lacking in their Western counterparts - tending to the fantastic in Gogol and Dostoevski and to the poetic and epic in Turgenev and Tolstoy.
Ivan Turgenev (1818-83), who admired Flaubert, is perhaps closest in spirit to the French novel. His exquisitely polished tales of aristocratic life in the country reveal the seething moral and political torments which lie just under the surface, ranging from young love to revolutionary fervor. In Fathers and Sons (1862) he reveals the intrinsically tragic irony of life through an analysis of the political and social situation in contemporary Russia.
This situation was the principal theme of Russian fiction in the 19th century. For example, it is central to the works of Nikolai Gogol (1809-52), such as his comic masterpiece Dead Souls (1842), his short stories (especially 'The Overcoat'; 1842) and his play The Government Inspector (1836). But these works also show how the conventions of Realism (objectivity and accuracy) can be stretched to reveal the incredible lurking within the ordinary. In Gogol, Realism begins to turn into Surrealism - this is not simple transcription of reality but a hallucinatory vision of it.
Gogol's fiction hovers between tragedy and farce in a way strongly reminiscent of Dickens. Both writers influenced Fyodor Dostoevski (1821-81) - one of the greatest of all novelists - who adapted their blend of satire, fantasy, comedy, pathos and stark realism to his own lofty purposes.
Dostoevski's first novel, Poor Folk (1846), was immediately hailed as a realistic masterpiece. But like Gogol - and unlike his French and English contemporaries - Dostoevski was a profoundly religious writer and he soon moved on from straightforward Realism. Where French and English writers tend to focus on personal, moral and social predicaments, he has no hesitation in tackling the largest political and religious issues, most famously in Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). Both are nominally murder stories, but the sensational plots, though brilliantly narrated, provide a framework within which he can discuss questions of profound existential importance.
These ultimate questions are also the concern of Dostoevski's great contemporary, Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910). But Tolstoy presents them in a very different way. In the vast War and Peace (1869) and in Anna Karenina (1877) there is none of the stylistic and narrative exuberance of Gogol and Dostoevski. These are apparently stories of ordinary people leading ordinary lives, told in a plain, lucid style, in some ways akin to that of the English novelist George Eliot. Tolstoy's type of Realism is not far distant from Classicism. It assumes the existence of a common human nature, and this allows the author to write about his characters as universal types, while at the same time focusing on individuals.
* ROMANTICISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
$,pt(t
P$,LtPxP
Ptp,P$
-,LP,)
$,L,LP$
(P,pTt$
$$,LP
$$,$,$t(P
$,,L$
(P),PU,
,P(tLPpPL
$$,L,(,P$
,P,LPxP,$
tLtPt
p,P(P
,(,x-(T
$PL,P(,
P-,PL
tLtxt
L,P(,L0t
P(,P,L
P($,L
x,L,,U,t,
$P(P)P0
,tpTtt
,P,p,tLP,L
,PPLP
PxtUt
(t,,(t
L,$,L
,$tPt
(t(tt,L,tQ
Tt($,P
$,P(Ut
$,$,$
,P,$$P
tLPLPt
L,P,(Q,,(
P(P(,
tLt(,$
L,t$,tp
,tLtxPx
PxTtt,L$,$
,P(Px
(P)P($,
$,(,P(,
tLtxPpPLTP
,(P,L
(P-L-,
LPP(,tLP
LtLP($P($L
$,L,PL
ttLttPpt
(,P(P
(P(P,(,$
,p,tL
LttxPxtPpP
t(txT
Pp,pPpPxP
Tt$$,tLP
$,y,tT
PL$,L
,,L,L
$,$P,
pPtLt
,p,tLt
$,pPp
$$,(P,M,,
P,),L
tPLt,tLtLt
$,L,$
P(,$-L,,
L,M,L
P(P,L
LtxPL
P,(P,P
UxTtP
P(P,-L
P,($,
Q,(P-(
ttPH,tL
L,,(P,L
P)P,P(,
t($P(P,
PTPT,
L-,P)P,(,L
$P(,$
(P(Q,L,P(,
P($,,L
$,pPtp
tLtLt
uL,xTtPx,
L,L,,L
xxUPUt,(U,
L,(P(,
P,(P,(
t,L,,
PPLtP
tTPTy
,p1t0xQ,x,
$(P,(P,(P
L,P(P
U,PTyxTyTP
,PPUPL1t1P
(P),L,,
(Q,LP
(P(P,L
t(tpP
,PPLT
yTTPx0tUP(
,(P,L,
P(,Q(t
,(PP($
,$tLPPt
pPtH,H
,L$,$,P
0PLU,
,xuTP0
PP(P(P,
$,(P$,L
P(,PL,P(,,
L,MP,L,
pPtPp
(HPp,tPt(t
(PHPtT
Pt,t,PHPPt
0PL,t-x
1xTxxPxt(x
,P(P,L,
tLPt(t
$Pt,tU
xx,t0P(x
tPxtUt(PUt
P,(,,(
L,PPL,,
,L,PL,
,p,xP
,(xt0,LUxy
TTUPTP0PPT
Ty,L,(P,L$
,(,,L,
$PPpt,(
xUx,L
,P(tTLTP
UPTyPPLU,,
(P,(P,L,,
tTPTt,P0
,,L,PTPPQ,
xPTPL0t(P)
,$,,(P
L,P(P,(,P(
x,L-(
P(,P(P(-(P
Tp0t,pPUPP
TPP0PM,L,P
P(P,L
PL,PP(
,P(P,,xt1
(-x,TP(t(x
,T,,P),L-P
P$(P,U,L,
),,L,
P,L,P(P
pt,p,,p
P(TPQ
,(tTTUP,x-
L,LT,T,(
P,(,(P,(P
L,,L,P(P,
(,Q(-L,L
P(,L,L,Ut1
PPLTPPL,
0,t,L0-x,L
,P0P(P,
(Q,(P,L,-L
,,(P,
,Q(P,(P(P,
P(,,L
ttPpx,H
t0tTPLtTQ
TPTPPLTPxt
(UTt(P,x,t
(,(P,
(,L,,P(Q,P
,,L,U
(P,(P,P(0,
(P,(P,L,,
P-xTP0tTPP
x0y,LUP0t(
,P,(PMT,,M
,P(P(,P(,
,(P(P,(P(P
,(P,L
t(T,P
L,L,P
P,M,P
x,yPtTPpT
t,t,L,LPTQ
TUt0,L,L,P
,L,,L
P(U,,U
,T,t1(,P(
,)P,(,L-,
t,tLt
P(U,tTyPx
x1x,U,P0t(
,Px,M,,(,P
,L,,P
P(,P(x,PL
$,L,L,,L-P
,(P,P(,P(P
,M,P,
PxTtx
LPL,,PU,t
-x,P(,T,t
,L,P(P(P-(
-P(,P(
t1,x,x1,
,P,(P,L,(P
P(P,(P
,(,L,
P(PL,L,L,
L-PL-
,$P(,P
,(T,L1xt0
,L,M0P(x,P
,M,1P(,
,(0PTP,L,U
Px,L,,(,
P$,(P(
L,L,(P
,L,P(
P(,x,TP
t(0t,,
$,(,,T
P(T,L,x,L,
M,L,P,P(U,
x,P(,M,,
PpPtL
,,Q0P,L
,,L-P(,
L,,L,L,
(PTQTQ(0Px
L,tL-0P(
P(P,,L,
,(U0,P(,P(
,L,,L
t,LPtptPp
P(,,(P
,T,T(,,L,,
L,,L,P(
Py,T0PTP1t
TP,(,
P(,P0,TQ,
x,LPL,,(T-
,Lt,,LTP(P
(P)P-Tt(UP
p,P,L-,L,P
P,(Q(,
P(,P(TU,tU
t0y,tTPLT,
1t(T,x(P1,
x-L,P(T-0,
L,1P,(U,
0PLx-Tt1,L
,L,P(P-
(P,,P)
P),,L0P0P(
x,x0t1P-
PLP0t
-L,,L,L,PL
P,L,P(
P(TPP(t(0t
,y,(P,(P,(
PTUPPTU,,x
-L1t0,L,,L
$,,Mt0
T-0u(P)T,T
,(UPx,Q(
,L,L,L
(P,(t0P
)x,x,(U,,x
,xTP,,L
,$,LxP0,t(
TPP(,,P
L,U,(P,
,P(P,
,L,P,
TPTPTP-0P(
x,UPx1P(T,
(U,x,M,,(P
,P,(,
y,L,(P
,P(P,
(y,t0QLxP,
y,TPU0t0-,
(,L0P
,P0t,L,L,P
(T,,x,t(U,
P(,P(
P($,L,
t0P(P,
$,(P1t,
,P(y0t0,,L
0t-xTT,L,L
p0QTU,x-(t
,,LxPU0,LT
,L,M,
PUTtx,
,P,L,L,
(P,(-
L-p,0PTP,L
(T,(x,x,T
P(,(TP
UPTP0P1P0P
1,L,,tTPL,
,L,,LT,TQ
x0ytTUx-TP
T,LTP(PUT,
T,0P,L,,-L
L,PTP-(t,T
P,P(-(T
t0x,t(0t)T
,,y0,xPUP0
(,P,L,
,x,P,
(PTQxP
xPtLTTt,x,
MPT,)T,,P,
L,,L,)
yTT,(
P(U,,L
PxP,(xQTx1
P(P,(PxPL1
,0PT,L,,L,
,P(TP,
L,P(,,L,P(
$,y,xPTP
U0xPx,xTt0
,y,P(,L,(
,M,,P(,P),
P,,L,,T,P0
P(,L,,L,,L
1,x1PT-T-L
,-(P,(1t(P
(P,L,
L,P(T
Q(,P,L,P(,
,x,P(P
L,xTxQT
xtPT)tp,P
,P-(P-
(P(,U,P(
,)T,(U,Q(-
(,L,P
t(PTt0P(
P(P0P,0Q
,),P(,P
L,,L,
,L,MPPTt1L
P),T,P
L,,P(Q,P(0
P0P(,P(,(P
0t0P,(t,P(
PT,u01P(P(
P,(P(P(0
P,x0P(-P(,
,L,(PTP
(P,,(,L,
(,P),P(
L,P(,
(P(,,(T,P(
-0P(P0P(P
,TP(Q(PUP0
,0t-L1,L,(
,L0,p,L,x,
pTPTTt(TPL
TPL,P(P,
-P(P(,,P(,
,p0P,P,(P(
TQxPP0,P(,
L-(P,TT
PP0-P,(P,(
P(P,L,
-t0PPL,t0P
LUPtTtT,p,
(PUPLP-(,(
P(P(P(
T-,(P(0Pt1
tTP-L,Q(P,
T,U,P0PMT,
,)P,TTP(,P
L,,L,,(,
L-,L,P0tTP
Lx,xtUPTP,
,,T,(P,P
TQ,L0P,
-p,0-T,(x,
,T,,L,P,)P
(-tL,
,L,,L,
,L,PLP,P
TL,,(P(0t-
P(y,tTPLT,
$(yt0P
LyPy0t0x,t
LT,,T
,LQT,
x,UP,,Q(,L
t(,,$,L,
,(PTP(
QP,L-PPL0,
pPx,yxTt,p
(P,L,,M,P(
P-L,P(,P
P$,,0
xTP,TPt0t-
x0Py,y,,Tt
L0P,0P,
0y,T-L0P(
P,0,P-L0P(
P(,t,
T,(,T,(
0P,(P(Qp,0
(PL,(P
,(P0,(P,(,
(,,P),,L,P
P(P1tx
x-T0t0xTQ(
,LTP,1t-
(P-0PTP
(x,,L
,LT,P(
$,(P,,L,(
-L0t(1P,Tt
,xt,x,P
L1PTPTP1tT
,P(P(P-L-,
,Px,xUx,x,
0P,U,LPT,(
P0xt1x
,1,L,
,L,(T
0P(P(
,P(P(P-P
(t(Q0,L0,,
p,P)0txUt1
,L,,L
,(t,xPPL0P
L0u0t0x,P(
xUT1u0QUx,
M,(,L,T-PT
P)PPxTPTt0
P,L,L,L,x,
LP,TQL,xP,
QT,x,T,y(P
0,LP,QTtTt
x,,L-0
t0Q0UxTtUP
t0t1tUx0TP
L,P(,
,tT0x,L,T,
T,U,TP(0P(
PTUTP1x-x(
,L,,Q(P
,0,L,T-(,L
P,(P0
$0,P(PLP,
L,P(t(TP,,
L,,(t(x1tT
xxPP(
$PP(P
TP0t(xPTPx
TQ0xTt0y0u
TT-p0P
LTUPP(
(PPTt,L,1P
,PTtx0yt0Q
,0t(Q,0t(P
,L,T-(P)
PU,L,
(PLP(
,L,(P,y,PL
,M,L,x,0tx
,xt,x1,
t(,t1PpUPT
x-TTtTxPPT
P0t,L,
(Tx,,T1x-T
,)t0t0P,yU
x0-xPTPx,P
P,)T,x,M
,P0,L0,0P,
L,,P0
L,P,(0P,(,
,x-,P,LPPL
xTtLx,P
0,M0,T,TPT
-xPU,p,TTU
TP1T,(,
L-0x,(P(,
T,T),P,LTT
,xTPT,1P
(P,)0P,
L,(Q,L,Q,L
P(,L,P
,0t(P(P
t,L,P(
P(PLT,PTPP
xx-xP(
,PTtx,UPT
PLTP(TPTy,
TPxPx-P0P
,L0t,x,P
0t(,P
tTUPx1,L,L
,,T,L,y,
,P(,,L,0
P(,Q0,
,-L,,
t,U,(P,(P
L,,(P,,
x,-L,LTPUP
P0,t0PUP
,PUP(P(,pT
y0P,x1P(,
x,L1PTQ0,
M,TPx,x1TP
TTP,T,
U,,0P,P0,L
1P0U,L,L,
,P(Q0P
L,P,(
t,,L,,
T0t0P,(P,
(P,,L0P,(T
0,L,0tpTx0
txx0t
$-L0tPT(x
0PUP,,U,x,
PUT,p,0Q,
P,(0P0t
(P,xUx1xPt
0-(P),,L,,
L,0P,L0,L,
x,,x,1,T,(
$,(-T,t0
,L,L,
,LTt(,P)
TPLTUt(,Tx
-L,x,tPTPT
$,(UtTP
,x,0u(TT,T
TxTPTPTP(
P,L,P
x,x0x,xP0P
(Q,L0t1P(P
T-L,P
P(P(P
L,(x0P,P
,(PPL,
x,x,P
(x,P(P,P(,
t(,x,M,,pT
P(tTyxTx,,
(,t(y,PT,x
,UPU,tTT1P
P0xPyT
xPUTTUP
TU,T,(P,M,
T,,L-P1tL0
P1,L,
,U,0,M0
,M,P(
,y,LTP,t(P
PM0PPT-x,P
TP0Q,xPx,x
,L,P(0t
0x,t(x,TPx
1x,xTP0,P
(y0xt0yPx
P0PTt
,P(0,L,(T
,PT,P1,t,x
P,PLU,(
,TTt0P
x,xP,P(0
PTPPL0P(T,
p1P,(xTP(x
P(P,L
P(-t(T,t),
xTtx1P0T-P
P(y,0y,0t0
Q0,(y,0t0-
LPT,T,(P-(
P)xT,P(x,(
LPTP1L,p
,,p0QL0t,,
Tt(1PLPPx-
,P0PLy0,T,
t0,t0t-x0P
TP0t(xx
U,,P(P0yx1
,P0P,(P
T,TPP,L0,t
UP(P-
$,,T-
t1x,T
LTP,TP)t(y
,,Pt0P1x,x
(PLT,t0QLT
Uxx0tTT,y,
y,L,U,0,,L
1,xUP0,L,,
M0P,,
P(T,T,
PP(U,L,(PT
P0P(tp01t,
(t1TPxx
PTPTP
0x0PTPyTt1
xUTPQ
P0,0-L-L
,t0U,,(U,T
,0-(,L,0Q,
x1P(xQT0UP
(U,P,(
x,LTP(P(,
P(P,P0t(,1
,L,L0PTPTQ
(,x1txPT,
xTPTx,x,T0
yP(P,T,T1
L,P(-L,
L,U,,P(0P,
T-x0PTP0,x
,UPx0P0PL,
0QLTQPTP,P
,y,q0xPTPx
P,x,P
$,L,Tt1xTy
,yPTPU-x,U
TQ(0P,TP0
,P,M0,P0
P,(UT,PTUP
T,TPTx0P,P
T,(P,
P(tTQLP,PL
PPTPTTP,p0
y,0PLQ,xTT
,x,P(
PT,U0tUtx
xTxy0xt0P,
P0,UTUP(,
P(UT,P(Q(P
1x,P1TUP0P
,1tUPUxUT1
PT,LTP-L
0,L0,x,p0P
TP(1P0,t0P
P(,P(
$,L,x-x
0x1Tt0tTyT
p,,0Q(
U,T,,T,,TP
t00x,(T,Ux
0P0PTx,TPy
,x0P(P
UPT,L0u,T,
t,UT,tLP0P
L,,LUxPTTy
P(,P,$
P,p0t0tT
txyTtx0t0t
xy,0P(P
0,(P(0x-TT
PT0P,QTP),
T,t1PTPUxx
0xTT-0P(,
x,xPL0,t,M
Tt(UPUTP(Q
(xPP(PTtTx
0P(y0t0x
TxPUxUTUP
x,L,T
0T,U,y
TT00P0P1x0
Ux-xx0U0-T
PTQT,T
,(Q(0,L,tT
P0t(t0
TQTPxU,x,L
,P,tUtxUxP
xx0t0
$TTPy,
L,PTt(x1,x
,UPL,T,,L,
y,L1,x,xTP
TtTxP,L,
t(P,TPL
0PUt0P1,p,
0u0t(yTtp,
$P(,,
,L1xTTxTP
TUTtUxt(
UTTPTP
,yP0P0PLT-
0PLU,0P0PP
LTUPTUxTPU
x0P)P,
P(,L,L,
0PPx,
uL,0t(,L,t
,P,LTPPT,p
0,x,x,T,TT
,xPxPxxt0x
0x-x,y,P,0
QTTQPT,0t)
,T,t(,00P1
,P0x,yx0-x
p0y,x0
,P(t,L-,1L
TTPt0U,(P,
x-xTPTy0tT
(,L1x1xTP
Ut1TP0P,
PTP(,(T,L0
,x0P,L,,T,
q0P0Q(P0PT
P00PTUx0y,
P(tTQLT
P0P(PP(
(TPt0P)TPT
Q(t,Lu(P(
Px-p0x,txQ
xTx1P
0P1PLPTP1P
TTUP0P(,
,,(P0,(Q0u
,yTtPx0xt,
,P(xPP
(P,U,L,P,0
LTPQTT,x,T
QTTP,x,Tt0
LT,xP
P(PTP1,t(y
Tt(,x,1P(,
LUP(P)t0P(
0P00yTQx1x
$TP1T,t
(PPL-T,(P,
P(xt,U-x,t
0u,xUTt1x$
$0P(,
P(QPx
-TUtTx0PP
,xTTPP
0,L0P1,t0P
TP(tL0,P,T
1txTxTtTx,
$,P(xPL0
t(,0t(,P(,
,LTt,0x
,x,L,
P,x0xP
0PyTtU,,
L,(P-L,,
L,(P,MTPTy
PTUTP
-,0P,P(
T,,P),(x
tTxTP
P,LPP,x,L
(PUtxyTx
TxTU,L
xPTTP(
PLTQ0-T1P(
,,0txUx
t,x,L
(t1,p
P(P(PP(
,,LTP0P0t,
y,xx,
TPPLTPt0
p0xTt,
(TPQTPTy,t
0P(xPT,p,0
,L,P(U,TP
P,LPT,,t
,L,QTU,TPT
xxTtt0PL,
t0xPLTx,tx
$TyTxUxT
(,PUxt1P(
0-LTt,
,U,T,L,L,L
P1tUx,t0Q(
,x1,P(P,
t,0t0,P(
T,yxTxx0xU
PPUtPL
tU,y,P,
PpTQx,ux,L
00Px,UPT,x
0Ux-(x-P(,
-T,0P
(P,x,0P
TU,0P
P,p1P
PL1t,L0y,
xPxQxx,tUt
TPTx,pt
,0tLTPxUP,
LxTPxTy
pT1t(x
,P(tT,,x,x
TP(x,L,
0Q(0t(x,(P
L,(P,L
TT,x,t
0,PPL
P(t1PLT,
PxTT,(P
tTt1ttTtx,
x0x,PLx,L,
(Tx1t0P
,t0u0PUx
,TyTTU,,y,
TyPP,L
U,0t0P,
P,(P,(
,pPT,y,
P(TPL,,L,P
TPTt0t(PxT
ty0x,x
,TPxxTy
0P(P,p,xx,
xPT,L,
PTt1tTP$
TQ(T,TP
TP0tT,UPPx
UTxU,0x0y,
P(0P)P0t(T
P(PPL
P,UPL0t
(,,L,,L,UP
p,T-L,TtUx
xTPTy,t,
x,xPPxP
xPp0P,(,y,
tytTTQT,
PTt0U
T,),TP0PTQ
Tytx1xQT-x
xt-xPT,(T
P(,P,,(T-0
,P(,0T,(
(t0,t0P
,L,,L,,(P,
t0t0,pTtPT
uxPL1,
$0tUxx
Pxx,TTx1P(
P(x,TtTtTt
L,(P,x,yT,
xPTPTTP0xT
t0yTx,xy,y
,L0P,T,TPT
(P(P,L,,t(
P,p-,P,
,L,$,
$,x,L1t,L
(P0,)
P0,L,x,LTT
PTP(P,
tLxxQxtTx
QxPx0P(,P(
PTx0yPxTyx
TP,TU,PUx1
x1PLx-t1xT
P0tTx,x0P(
)x,L,,(T
(,P(T,,
PM,(Q
,x,x,q,,
U,ttTuTPt,
,LTxxT
ytxtTPTt0P
LP,L,t(xTt
xTyxUt
,L1,P0T,Tt
,(x-x0Tx,x
Qx-xTTPy0P
,P(P,
,,P(P,
(,(P,,P(0P
t(TQP0PLP,
L,P(P0tx,x
0UxxTxyTx,
1tTtT
xPxPx1xytL
x-(T,P(,,x
TxPxTxxtUP
L,,L,
,L,yPx
,T,y,,x1x,
x,UPx,x1P,
,P(P(,L
P,P(t(,P(,
,TPTP(P,(P
(PP(0PPyt
p-xPPTPTxP
(PTxyxPU
TtTP0tTPTP
x0P,L
xyTxTxy,0
T,x,P)t,Q
p,1t0x,x,x
PTTy0x,
P(,L,Q(PP,
PxxTPPL
P,L,P(,TTt
TxxTxP1x,L
,pTtTxtT
TPxPPTPxUT
tUx,p
TxTxtTtxTy
L,p,P0y,0P
LT-L0,P(x,
px0,yPT,x,
(,(,(,
t0tLTPP(P,
(,L1tPTtTx
PQtxPx,L,
TyxPxtx,xT
xt0ttTtx,x
PT,L-(PTyT
UTxt0xy0,
,(TPT,L1,L
TP,TUP(T-,
,TTPUt0x,
L$,L,P
P$P,L,
x,T,,L
,TPPTytxTx
Tx0t0t0,
xxtUxUxT
y,QTPUx1tT
,xPTQx,0P(
P,xPx0xTx0
P1PPTTP0P1
P0,y0P0tTP
(xPT,T0P1P
(P,(P
(P(,P
0P(P0,L,P,
L,,(x,xPxU
txPx1PPL
HTxTxxTxtT
xtTttxTyxx
1xTx,xt0,L
,0uxPxyQxT
P(xP0
1tU,(,0t,L
,PPL1,ux,L
Tu,L0,0P,
P(,T-T,-
,,L,P
L0,(P
TQL,P,L,(P
,xPTx0ytxx
PyTTP(
0tTytTyxT
txTPTxTx,x
Ttx,x0t0ux
t(P,,0x,xT
Lx-TT,M,P0
,P1UP(P0,x
,P(0t,yP(T
L,,x,
0,p,(
(UtTxtTyTx
TtTt0$
$xxTx
xQx,xyTx-x
PxytTxTU,P
,LTP(x,x,t
,x-x,,
(P,y,T,)TT
P(TPU,L,tT
TPUTP(,P)P
PL,0tx1
P0,(,
$,($,
P,$T,
P0,P(P
T,uxPx,y,x
,y0,P
0PTtTxyxTx
PTPxTPUtx0
y,tTT
UP,PT
$TT1P0
P0Q0,(1P(P
1t,,p
,P0tT,P(
P(T-T
(P,(P
$t(P,
TtTTt0P
(x,xTx
Tt1xu0xPxT
xPxTQTTPTx
1xPL1x0t,(
PTxP,,P0
xTQLPTP,U,
T,t0,T(0,t
,p01xTU0P0
,,TTx,T,
Px,PLTUtTP
xt(Ut(
(xxtTyxTP
TxTtxuTx,y
xTQTtT,t0t
L0t,0TPU0P
$0,(P
$yy,T,
(0t0,L-00x
P,P,P)0PTT
,LTP(PP
P(,xT
tTtxxUxTPx
$PPTtTPtT
xt1tyTPTxu
x0x,x,xTy0
u0P(U,LPTP
,T,T1P,PTP
p,)x0xT,TP
TPt0PT,(,
(,x,,
xPUtTPTtxT
]$x1xTy
TxTx,t
xTtUPTx0t0
t0t0PPy,x0
$,(T,L
Ty,y,t(x0-
T,0Py,T1PT
PUT1P0Q(P(
PL,M,
P,0,P(
x,yPxT
x,xTPTxPU,
T,tx,yP
Uxt1xxtTQ0
xuTx-t1t0P
Lx,LTx,L-0
xUT,,(tx,,
x,0,x,,TPp
0PTt0,,P(
,(P,L
xTP0y
,yTP-xTP0P
0xTxxUxxT
xUPUxxUx,x
,x0xUPPx,x
,x1PPL,
(PT,L
(xTx,
TTP1,(T,y,
P(yT,U,x-x
0P,L0
,P(P-L,,
L,y,pTx
tTxx,xu(P,
,p,yPT
Tx-txTxx,p
TTUx1tx,x1
t(,xPx,(P,
P,0T,
PT,x-
yxy,P0,UtT
P0P(0t0TtT
UPT,y0
LP,L,
tUx,TTx,xx
Px0x,0P
,xTTPyTty0
tPUx,MTt,t
t0u0TPU,,T
$,0y,M
xTx1y,L,
0,P1,x,y0P
0t0QTt0PT,
P,(P-P
P(P(P(
xTPTt,yPtT
U,xPL,L
,LTtTtxTxP
TTxPx,x0x0
t,x1x,PPT,
TLTx,
PPTtT
P,0P,LTT0P
TPUP0,p0TT
P,(P(,
P1PPLPxx1x
xTtUPx,
L,T1xxP
yxtTPTyxPx
yPx1xPT,x0
yPL,P
$,TUP
L0yx0t1Q,
L,y,t0t0x,
U,TPxPTP00
P,P0P
PL,0P(
tTU,TTtTPP
qx0xPP(
1xTxTx1x,x
-xTP,xu0y,
pTx,xPU
(PTT-L
0,TTPUTPUP
UTxx,1xTPT
PPL,L
,PU,L,
,xPTtTy0t0
TPxt0U
x,tTyx
TuxPxxPxt,
yTP0tL0PTP
xTP(P
0txP0
LUTTyTty,
xT,x0t0x,T
UPx,xy,xTP
,T,,u
1,yTtxuTxP
x,yTP(
,pTx,
xxTuxUTPx0
tuTt,UPTQT
UTTQ(P
L,y0UP,
TTP,xt
,x0x0tT0tU
TPx0yPPTP
L,PUx,
PTPxTxTxtT
PyTxt0xPyx
x0xPTtx,M
0t,x,(
TPtTyTx1x
,1x,xUP1tT
Tt0t0x,yTT
,x0PLP
TxTyTtx,x,
xPxxTxPTxU
TQTTy,PPT,
xyt0y,
P1tTT,$
P00TTt0tT
P,TUTTx0Px
1xTx-xTPQt
L,,M0Px
PxP,x-xPx-
,x1tTUPUP,
xtTx,PTTUT
\TTxTx
x1xPT
py,PT
T,T,t1P1
TPU,T,xx,T
1P1P
L,x,U,p,,
xxUxTtUxPT
LTt0xUxT,x
xTU,x0QTPT
PyPPx
,xPUT
tTT-T,
xUxT,y0x0t
,LxPx,t
(P0tx1Tx0y
0PTx0Q0
,P,xPxUxPU
PxPT1t,xu0
TPTy,
pTT-TPxy,
yTU,x,UPx,
TUTx,PPUPP
P0TP0,P1,t
xtTtxPUPx0
T$xUxP
,TUtPTTPT,
,yTUTyT
,UTx,
,Tt,y
Txxt0T,PTU
0yP,x0yTTP
,tT,P(x,x0
xTxx,Px0UP
,(PxTtyx
TyPTTx-xt(
UxttTxt
xT,x0P,TPy
PTyP0Ut0yT
xUPUU0xTPT
x1t,xPU,t1
(1,Q(-t0PL
xyUx,x1Px,
xUtxyT
0P,,xPx
Ux0xxy0xPU
xUt1xT
xTyyxUUTPL
TxTTP
UPTPTPUxTU
Tt0xPTPx0t
p,P(P$
,L,0P0-x,p
,xTy,xT1t(
Uty,xP
xPTTQP
yTxxQxxTxP
,TxTx0P(
$0u0x,
PTUx,0P(x,
T0PTPTUPUT
,T-0P1x,TP
P0t0PLP0,T
TxtTT-Tt0P
xPx,p,t
x,xxTxTUTx
xPxtTxTyx,
L-,xxy,P
x0x-T
PUtTyx,UPT
PtT1x,x0xx
PxTP(x,,qT
,L,0,
)P,0PTP(t0
QTT,xPTU,
$Px,L,(
xTx]T
,yTt\yxx,x
x-($Tt
TtUTxy,TT
x,(PUTPx0
PTP0x
0t1TTP,Ux1
TUP(y0PTQ0
P1P0tTT,L1
P,L-T,L,P
,L0t1PT,yT
t0xPTUT,P(
t(tTyTu
L,T-tT
tTyPx0P
TyxTQ0Q0tT
x0tTx0
t,0xPx,x,t
UxTx,xPU,P
(P0t0P,L
(,,L-
x,T,x0y
,TTx-L,
LP($0t(tTy
xTxTx0tT
xTtTtTT,PT
PUUPT
y0xx0T,P1x
0UTx1x1TPT
1,x,),L1
L,,L,P
P(t,L,,
L0-,tTPUt,
pyPPTP(
$TP,T,L,
PLtTt,xUx
(P,)xxyxP
$,TxyTx,xT
Txt0t(TTPy
PTxPT-
,yTy0t,xUP
Tx,x0xPT,
,T,x,T,L
PTT,L,P1
t,L1x,x,
P1TP(P
PTLTxTtx
P0x,x,Px
TPTUT
$xPxUxyPty
0uTPT,xTx,
txUTT
8tx,T1
1TUPx1P1x,
Tt,(T,
p1,$]PLT0
t,L,P0yTy,
xx1tT,P
p,x,L,x$TQ
,Pp,xTy,
(P,xUTxxt,
$xTUTxTxTT
QtTQTx,
\xx,-
0xTxPxUx
xTPTyxPQTt
Tt(t,UP01P
P(P,(P
x,,TTx,0Q(
0,x0uTt(TU
T,L,L,$
PL,L,(,xyx
,,L,(x
PyTxx,ytx,
xPyt0T,xtU
xxUxx
y0x,1x0x0u
0P0P(,Lt,(
y,L,xU,LTP
PT-t0x0t0P
PTT,P
x0xxTx,xTx
,TTyTPy
xUxTU,
x1xy1x,x
1tyTtxPyx,
t1t0x,xTPT
,(,T,(Pi
x,(,xU
,L,x0-x-x0
y0t)P
$PLPP
PUTPt
UxxTTxtTxt
xx-$x
TTy,yTxtP
$,yxTx
tTUPx,x1x0
yxy,x1t]L,
0,0P,L,U
Ty,P0t(
P(TPPTt(x,
t,T,t(P
P(,L,P,
x1xxTxuxyT
xtTPx1xPTt
,tTx0ty0
txUx0
,x,xx,
x,xTxy0,xT
TPT1xxPP(P
L,,(Q
P,(P(P
tTt(t0P0P0
,x0,,L
,P,(xPxTxT
TyTxU
Ty,xPTQP(
TxxQT
y,TTQ0x,x1
0ty0xUTPT,
1x,P0x,(,
,xy0P,TPp
y0t1t(xTQ0
t(PL,,L
P0QTPTyTxx
tTP0yx
xUT0x0x0,
yx,xT,
U,yPTTxTxx
TxUTut0tTU
PL0Ty,,T
P(,u(
(PLyTPTU,x
,TPT,x-LTP
PTP,L
PL,LUT
TtyTxxtT
LTxTy
,,TPxPTU
xx,yTx
Ux0PTP,L,,
L,P(P
P(P,T
(P,(t0
t,t-x,(x,U
L,P$,
,L,PTPUx
tUTTxx1,xT
tTTtTxP
(U,LU
0y1xx0yTx,
x,L,LT,,(,
L0P1t
1(0TPP0P(,
L,P,(
,tTP,(
L,L,P(,,xT
xxt0yTxx,y
PxTxTx
xy0-PT
TTy0PPT,L0
xxUxTxxTx
y0y,0
L,P$,
Q,P,L,
yTP(Q,,(,P
0tP,p1t1,t
P(P,(P,
(,P)x,y
TxTxTxyTP,
tUxxT
yTxxPt
UxPU,
,xTyTx
0yxUP0P,L-
L,L,P(
x,,T,L,T,(
,1x,P(,P0)
(t,(t,L
L,PTL,x
PUPxxPxUPx
Px1x,
Uxyx-x,-x
Px1xU
xy00P,,L,P
,L,P(
xyTP,LPP0
P(P(x,P(P,
(,T,t,xxU
PTx0x,Pxt
,yxTTUx0
t0t(PUxt0x
TtTxTt,,x
,tTyTP
xx-(x
pUT,0P(
,P(,PTL,(P
,x,L,
,L,L,,L0
xTxxTx-xx,
$xTxT
xxPUTQ0$0x
Ut1xUTTUx0
TyTPPT,L
,pTP1P
,,y,xUtTTt
TT,xT
xyPyxx,Px,
LTPTxx0tt0
Px0PPL
t1tTPUT0t0
,L1,L,(,,
,L,x,
xTxTTPy,TT
TxT1x,xx01
tTUTxQT
xTy1x
,x,U,L0
$,T,Q
,L,(P0t
TPT,T,L
$,(P,
P,($,PTP,y
TUx,TTPT
yxTyx
x1txTx
x,xTxTxUx1
\TPT,TU
t1PT-P,L,,
TxtxPx,L0t
xUTTx0tTx1
xUTTx,
xxUx0t
TPLT,
,t0PLT,,L
P(,P)P(0x
0u0t,U
,x1x,x
Utx0tTyT
(xUPt(,T,
L1PUP1,T,
(,T,t(x,,L
PUTtTUPTQx
PUx,TUt0tU
x,0,L
$,,L,
(yTt,
,(TPU,L-,x
yxUtx,xx,
0x0TT
L,L,(P
L,0P(
P(T-P(xQ0
xx,T-
]QTxUx
,UTTUPx1TQ
xPL,yPty8t
Txty\T,
(,L0$1t,y,
x,y,x,P(-
xTP0P(,(P,
P,(P,0P,
xxyxT
TtyTTPx,x0
y\Pt0yTt
TUt0tyTU0,
P0x0P
x,x,(
TP0t0P
(P,(P0tUx
,xPxPx0Tx
Ty,TxQT,x0
0t,yyP
tTxUTTtTP
(,,L,P
y0P-L-(x1t
0Q,x0-L,P(
(,P,0P
xyxxU
yx0xUPUx,x
UxTP,(P,x1
,L,P(
0,L-xy,,
TP,x,L0,P,
TPxTT
UPTxPyTxTx
Tt0PTU
u0T,P(U,t(
,L,,L,U
,P(xTP(
0LTt,L,LTQ
TP(,P,
(,T,(P,LP
yTxxP
Tx0uTxxT
,xt)x0t(0P
-P(,,P(
,L,(,
,L,P,L
0x,1P,P
$$,(P,(
P(PLT
,xy0xxTtUy
x,xUT0uTx0
0,P(,T,L,(
PUPP(U,0x1
PTP(P,
TxPxUxTPUP
Txt0t0tUt,
L,Q,LTP,Q
,(P,,L,
L,TPL
,yx0P(
x,0P,(
LPTxy,x
TtTtTTt0PL
T,xUPLT
(0x0P,
,x-,P(
xUt0,(PTP1
,L,(P,
,xTxT
xx1xTPTt,t
TQT,T,PUtx
,1P,L,,L,,
(,P(,T
,x,LTQ,
,P(P(x-xP
u,x,xPTyTy
0x0x,T,LTx
PT,tP(T,LP
PTLP,LTP-T
LUP(x,$
pTxxt
Ux,yPLTt(x
0tPP0-px,0
xTt(P
P,0y,
PUP0P0,u
x,,t0
t0xPTxPTTu
0QPTPT1x,x
,tQLx,M,P(
,LTP,L
p,UTP
)P(P,,
TyPxt0tx,T
Px1tTPLx,x
,x0xPL,,
TP,(x1PT
,0t(P,
,$,($
x,x0uTP
0tLTPL,T,x
-L,L,x-P0P
L,,p1,
PTP1PPT,x
L,t0,L
Tt0tTTU
x,T,TPxTPT
x,t,L,,(,
(-L,T,L
Ux,P(0P(tT
TQL,L0yP,(
t1p0TPx,UP
x,L1PTQ(,T
tx,(,y,,xU
P(0,0P
y,x,L,t0PT
t,TP1,P(
P(y0P-
xUP,T,L,,x
tL,M,
t0P(TP,q0t
0Q(t,,L,L,
P,0t(
Tx,LUP,L,x
,0t,L
t(,P,
LTPTPLx,x,
L,L,,
TP,xUt1PTP
P(P(,,
L,,(PPT,P)
y,p1x0PLP,
PUP,L
,t(P$$,$,(
PPL,(
P(P$,
P0xUP-T,(x
$,,p0,
(t,(PPL,tp
(t-x0x,LPL
$0P,L,
ttLP,LPtLP
txtTPLx,P
,y0tUP(,Tt
P,(,P
pPtp,t,LPt
TtTtx,LTt
UPT,(PTP0,
xPt(Pp,pt
Pt0t,t,
,P(PUP(PLP
tTPtLPP
(QPP(,,U,
,p,,L,
PttLtP
xPLP,$
P,L,x,x
(T,PP
tLtPx
L,Q,(,L,p,
P,(P(
PPLT,$,
tP,TP0,
,L,(,P
,P(PLxPP0$
,L,,(,
L,-TQ
Tp,,P
$t(,$Ppt(P
(Q,P,(
$,,p,
LtPLt,
$PLtPp
pPpPp,
tTP$,
Pt,Ht
p,t(tx
P,(P,L,
$$,t(PPtTP
L,xPx
P(,T,L
$$,,p
P,P,$
$,L,tLtP
,xPPL$P
P,(P,LPpPP
tTtUP
t,p,pPP(,t
tTtptPp
P(tLP
xtLt,
LTxPxTx
,PLPLPtP
Tt,$$
tLtPP($
PptPL
PP(PP$
tPL,P(
TxPxt
ptTtPp
,xPpP
PtTtx
PxtPx
Tt(,(
qTP,,
yPxx,x
x,TP,(P
,0,P(
QLxt,L,P
xUx,t,(
PPLPP(tP
P(,P,(t
PL,L,t(,
PPLPtpPt
,P(,t(xPxT
ttLtPL
t(PPLPLPxu
0TPTT
LPP,pTPxt0
t(P,P
-L,t0P(,L,
Pt0t,Lt,
P,L,$
L,$,P
(P,L,,L
,LPxt(
L,(P,(P,
LPP,pxPL,
L,P(,,LP
$,Lx,P
p634-3
z!R"4#
ftsTitleOverride
Realism and Naturalism (page 3)
ftsTitle
The stark realism of Zola and the Naturalist school is also reflected in the visual arts of the period. Honoru Daumier's earthy lithograph depicts (albeit with rather more humor than Zola) bathers in a public bath house. (Archiv fer Kunst)
Realism and Naturalism (3 of 3)
The German Realists
In German-speaking Europe, the writings of the Austrian prose-writer Adalbert Stifter (1805-68), the Swiss novelist Gottfried Keller (1819-90) and the German story-writer Theodor Storm (1817-88) display a Realism that is regional and sometimes pastoral in its inspiration. Their attention is focused on social reality, but not - as was the case with the Naturalism of Zola - on its ugly and sordid aspects. Sometimes referred to as Poetic Realists, they aimed to portray life in a way that reflected positive and enduring values, avoiding excessive idealism on the one hand and excessive realistic detail on the other.
A subtle brand of Realism characterizes the social novels of Theodor Fontane (1819-98), many of which are set in their author's native Berlin and are marked by gently ironic humor, psychological understanding and a deep awareness of changing social conditions. Irrungen Wirrungen (1887) explores the themes of class pressure and social duty in a sensitive account of the liaison of a working-class seamstress and an aristocratic army officer. In his greatest novel, the tragedy Effi Briest (1895), Fontane's humane, non-moralizing treatment of the theme of adultery rivals Flaubert and Tolstoy.
Naturalism
The typical Realist novel concentrates on the moral predicament of a hero or heroine. But towards the end of the 19th century prose fiction assumed a new focus with the appearance of Naturalism, a specialized form of Realism based on the philosophical doctrines of materialism and determinism. For the novelist these amount to a belief that everything in the world - including human behavior - has observable physical causes; and that the individual is therefore shaped by society.
These views are expounded in Zola's essay 'The Experimental Novel' (1880).
mile Zola (1840-1902) dismisses the minute psychological and moral description typical of the traditional Realist novel in favor of sociological analysis. He was a political radical who believed that the writer's task is not merely to describe society but to reform it. Germinal (1885), set in a grim mining village, is less about individual characters than the appalling sufferings of a whole working-class community in an unjust social system. Germinal is but one in a 20-volume cycle - the Rougon Macquart novels - in which Zola set out to present 'the social and natural history of a family under the Second Empire'.
A similar approach is seen in the work of the Russian Maxim Gorki (1868-1936), the American Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945), the German Gerhart Hauptmann (1862-1946) and the Italian Giovanni Verga (1840-1922). These writers all began as Romantic sentimentalists, turning to Naturalism in revulsion against what they saw as the trivializing, self-indulgent influence of Symbolism and Romanticism. Little read today, they had considerable influence - especially Gorki. An important figure in the Russian Revolution, Gorki ironically ended up veering back towards his earlier mode of writing. Dreary sentimentality and predictable proletarian heroics became the hallmark of the style Gorki enshrined as 'Socialist Realism' - which for decades was to be the only approach to literature allowed in many Communist countries.
The theater
While Socialist Realism was turning the ideals of literary Realism and Naturalism on their heads, the immediacy of cinema (and later television) threatened to render them obsolete. The theatrical revival in Europe at the end of the 19th century can be seen as the final flowering of Realism.
The late 19th-century Realist drama has an important forerunner in the work of the German radical Georg Bechner (1813-37). Danton's Death (1835) is a complex and pessimistic drama of the French Revolution. The dramatic fragment, Woyzeck (1837), with its themes of poverty and mental derangement, and use of short abrupt scenes, is both in content and form far ahead of its time.
The Russian Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) wrote both stories and plays, including The Seagull (1896), Uncle Vanya (1900), The Three Sisters (1901) and The Cherry Orchard (1904). His eye for the comedy of human foibles and pretensions only underlines the pervasive melancholy of his work, which is both sympathetic yet detached.
The Norwegian Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) is a more complex figure whose plays range from drawing-room comedy to poetic tragedy. His middle-period plays (A Doll's House, 1879; Ghosts, 1881; An Enemy of the People, 1882) deal explicitly with social and political problems in the claustrophobic world of the provincial bourgeoisie. His later plays, such as Hedda Gabler (1890) and The Master Builder (1892), are more symbolic and show greater concern with the subconscious. Ibsen is often seen as the first great dramatist to write tragedies about ordinary people. His addressing of issues such as the position of women within marriage, and the conflict of authority and individual freedom ensures him a continuing relevance to the modern age.
Finally there is the Swede August Strindberg (1849-1912), whose earlier work, such as Miss Julie (1888), resembles Ibsen, but in whose later plays - notably The Ghost Sonata (1907) - one observes the dissolution of classic Realism into Expressionism.
* ROMANTICISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
,txPxTtT
TTtTtxP
txx,P,
PLxt(P
PL,P(P
xxPtT
xPxPtT
xttxP
t,$xP
,LTtL
tPL,P
,t$PLPp
pPx,PT
$Tt(P,
Pp0tpP,t(
t,x,L
,ptPLPtT
,L,tL
t,t,P(tPL,
$xPLtt,p
$TP$,L,LP
t,LPtp
P,LtPp,PPp
,PLtP
(PLP,PL
,Lxt,
xPxPxx,$
,LPP(t,
tp,PU
(P,,p
Pp,LPP(P
$TPP,p
,p,LP
,LxtPP(tPx
tx,L,
,$PP(t
t,pPx,pt
PptT$0
xtT$P,L,P
,p,pxPtt(P
,p,,p
x,xt,p
$$,x,P
pPPLPtpPP
PtPpPP
x,PLP
$,(P(P
p,(P,
(tL,P
xPx,p
txPt(P,p
tTP,t
,LPp,t(P
Ltptp,
TtLt(
t,p,Px
,tLxT
pP,$,
P$,PPL
,P$PPp
TxtPt
L0P,t(x
Ppt(PT
(tPp,,t
T,Pt,L,
tPtLPpP
UtxPx
LP(tT
PPTP$
TtptP
xPPpPxP(t,
,LPtx,P
PPp,p,P
TtLtt
PLP,$xPL
p,pPL,
ttPLPLPP
PTH,p,(
Tx,xP
$,t(P,$
t,p,p
,tptt
PTx,t0
,$(PP
LT$(t,ptL
Pt($,
$P,pP0
PP,txt
,xtPpPLPP
,LPt(
L,p,PH,$
,p,TP
LPtPP
PLPLP
t(xHx,
,ptLP,
tPxLt
T,p,,
$PL,(
(Pp,P(PP
LP(t,
P(tTPT
P,PLPL
PTPLtt(,LP
PPL,t(,t
Tt1x,x
,xt,yTx,
x,t(,LPtL
xTPTt0
x,L,t
,ttPpPpP
P,plt,
tTP(P
p,p,t(t
$,t(t
PLx,L,PL
PtLP$tp
,P,p,P,,
,x,LP
tTtLt
xTPtTT
,L,PL
t,LPLt
x$TtT
x,x,x
PLPPpP
,LPP(
P(,TPT
LtpTP$
PL,,tT
txPtx
Pp,LP
tPLPL
Pp,P(
,tLtL
,LPTP
(,x,pPPLxP
,L,(P,LP
LPLP,p
Pt(,L,
LtPLPxPTP
pPttTt,tLx
,x,L,P
tLtL,
(t(tP
LtPLPPp,$t
HxPpt
tpPP,
,xx,L
tPptT
t,Tt,p
,PLPL,
TtTtL
T,,tP
xPtLP
PpPxt
Tt0P0P0
,p,$,P(
Ptp,pt
ptLtp
Pp,PPp,
pPPLxtLP
TtTpx
$,LPp
xTt(,P(,LP
(ttLt(tP$
p0,t0P(Pt
TP(PPt
xtPpt
,L,t(P
xTPt(
ttLx,pP$T
ttP(t
($,p,
LtLPPp
,$,pP
pPHtP
pPt(x,t
p,HPL
tpPt(UP
PtLxPxP
$,$,p
xPPtTy,
$,xP(tPtL
PttLt
t($tTtL
xPx,t
Pp,LPL,P
TL,t(P,L,
(Pt,t
,tLt,,
,PP(ttPp,
l,pT$
PtLttHLt
xtPpt(,
PpttL
pP$tp
tPp,PpTt
p,,L,(t,t
PpPPLtPp
t,LPP
TtLtP(tT
LPPLtxtPp
txtTtpt
ttLtPH
pxPptP
$,p$t
PLTt,p,t
$,$,P(t0
tPpPp
tTPpP
tLtpT
P(Pp,t
tPtLt
,HPt$
,t(x,P(
PLP(t,pPt
(PLtpPttL
Px,pPt
Pp,,x
$,PHPtp
TtLtLt,
Ltx,L
,P1ttTt,p
tL,tp
tPpP$
TPPxP
,tL,(
($,pPP
P$,P$T,t0t
tLPPp
tP(tt
t$tL$
(t(P,P
,P$,p,P
,LPPx,L,
ttLPLPP
TtTt,t
,pTPP
LtPx,tLPT
tP$0t($P
,PL,L,P(
P(t,tLP
tPpt,LP
,tTP$
,xtPpt
PlP(P,L
PLPpP
t(Px,(P(
P(PPp,,tp
,(P$t,(PP
,L$,PLt,
tLtTt,t
Ppt,p
,LtPL,P
x,ptt
Lt,pt
tLtPP
,x$xT
PP,LP
$PPLt(t
t,p$p
pPLPLP
,PTPt
pPL,pPt(tP
,P(t(t,t
LPPL,tP
Pp,,t,L,P(
t,pPL
LttLt
PP$P,p
tPlPtpPH
(PP,,p0tPp
p,LPP(P
tLP,P(
tLPLP$Ppt
LPxPL
,PLPPL
,P(PPtp
,P,p,t$T
tLt(PLt
$tLxPpPt0
,($,p,
TPPHt
LP(tPLTPL,
TPtLtPL
tLtPpP
PpH,L
tp,t(tp,tp
,PL,,L
(tPL,
$PpxP(,
PLPPL
,L,PptLtP
PtPpT
t(P,LP
pPLPp,
p,pPLPL,H
tLt(P
t(,PLP
PP,pP,
tP,Lt
tPHT$,t(PP
pPt,tPp,tT
tPL,tp
x$tLPPp
PPLPtLP,$
T,,LP
tpPpx
t,xPt
tLx,p
p,tP/
pPxtLPPpt
t$PL,P
ttLtp,
P,P,($PL
Tt0ltP
$,p,p
,t(tPtptL
TtLtp
PpP,P
TPL,P
PpPLP
Pt,p,PL
xPpt,P
(,P,,p,P
PptpPL
P$t,tp,H,
tLPt(
P,pPp
p,ptP
pPPLP
P(t,t
PLPPp
,p,pt
Pp,t(
tpPp,t
PttLtp
xPp,tL
tLt,H
,,Hpt
P($PpPp
xPtpPt
LPtt$
pPtLt
PtLP(
$PLP,P(
PtPLP
TTPPptT
(tPP,
Pt(tt
TtPp,
PtpPt
pTt,L$,t
Lt,tLt
x,tPpt
PLPPL
tPpPpt
t,p,xP
PTPxxt
Lx,tL
$,$,Lt,
pP(P,tLP
(,,P,L,tL
TtLPPx
Pt(tPxx
LtLPPLt
tLPL$,L
PLPt,pP
PP(tP
P(PLt,P
P,(t$
,ptt(t
tLPLPPL
TtpPtLt
t(,px
TH,x$
,(0tT
PptPL
,pPP,
,x,Pp
,HPLP
,p,pPP
t,(t(,P
,pPtL
P,PLP
$$,HP
PPL,p
$,LPp
t,p$PptP
(tPp,
H$PtL
t,$,,$
LPt,Lt
,t(tL
ptpHT
PTt,pt
tPL,x
,LPLPp
Px,Lt
(tP$t
$,LPx,
,H,tL
PL$$,L$
,pTPP
,p,tTH
tLP,t
LPt(t
,LPPt,p
$,t(P,$
tPp$T
(t,,$,$,
tPt(t
TttTt
PxPp,
t,p,L,t(,t
(tPpP
$,$,L
tpP$P
P$PLPP,
(t(tPt
,tLtP
yPPpxt
pPPL,P(t,
H,pP,L
PHPp,
,pPtL
PLP,x
PLtTl
LPxtL
,LPPL,(PL
$,HPp
(P(P,tPp,
PtlPLtt(
,L$,$
PP(PLt
xPpPt,
t(t,($P
,pPpt
PpPtT
PpPtp,P(
,P(,PtTt
t(tP$
t(tL,
$PL,pPt
p,p$l
,LPLP
xTt,x,
$t,t(t
,(tPpP
HtPp,P
tPLPtP
Pt$PLP
,H$,L,
tPx,P(
$Px$xPLT
tLPt(t
t($Px$
LPp,$
PpPtLt
xtPtLP
TtL,H
P,(P$,,
(tPpPtP
tPpPL
P,ptT
$TPLH
,HPp$
LPtPp
t,p,t
$PpPPpP
tLttp,p
tLPP,
$,pt,p
,HtLP
,tTH,t
$L,PLP
,tLtPpPt
ptLt$
tPp,H
tp,Lt
,$t,pPL,tp
t(txP
tPxPtp
,pTt,
TtLx$
L$,xtLP$tP
,tLtP
PLPLtLP
pPPLP
$P,pPLH,
t,p,p,tpP
,L,,LPpP
ltp,tHPt(
Ptp,tt
,LxPt0
,t(xP
,PtLP,P(PP
LtPp,tLt
HPtpt
,Pp,tP
tpPxtL
($x,L,
tPxPtL
pPtLx,L
,tpPPLt(t,
ptTtt($
(HPPp,,tL
,pPLPp
tLtPt
$,(tP$
tPpPLP
PP(t(
p,tPLPtPL
HTP,LxP
Ppt(P
(,t(,
,pPP(
$PLtPL
PP(HT
P(tp,x
,p,LPL,
TttLPPptLt
PPp,tp,P
PPHPp
,$L,PTtP
LP,L,(
PtLPtLt
,ptPpPPL,H
,pPt(
t(P($$,
,tpPPt
pPtp,pP
tLtTt
xPPLPTP,
$t(tpt
(t(t,p,
P,p,p,
LtLPP
p,t(PPp
,t(PP
(PPLP(t
0p,p,
T$xHt
ptPLPP
t(t,p
Pp,$P,
LPP(PlPLP
LPHt,$
P,LtPpt
t,p,x
(P(t,pt
tt(tP
t,pPp,
PpxP$
(P,tLP$
tPL,Pp,
,L,,p
HTt,p
p,tLtP
$P$Tt
$P(P(t,
x,tPL,pP
PL,ptLttL
$Ttt(
(txt(PP
t(t,pP
,pPtp
P$LTH
LP,t(t($
PLtLPLHt(
P(PPtLt
t,pPx
xt(tLP,p$
L,p,p,tLxt
,PLt,$,$
Ltt(tP
t0$Pp
Pp,P(
$Lt$t
PtpP
,tpt,p,t(
LPLPt,LPtL
pTttL
TPp,P(
t,pPP
LPPLxt,
tLlPLtt,L
LPt(T
(tLtLPPp,
LPPLPP
,ptTPTt
tLP,tL
tLt,p,tTtP
LTPPLPLtt(
(P,(P
p,p,p
PPpHTttLPL
,t,p,tLttx
PpPP(P
x$PL,t
(tPpPpP
t,p,t
Tt,pPL
t(tPTPL
PLt(xtL
tLttPLP
ptPL,t(
,L,pPx$,p,
tTtPp
pttLxtL
t,$0t
tTttT
,LPp,P(P
,L,pTPPt(P
,p$PLtxtL
,p,tPLT
,x,P(t(t
LPtPL
PtL,P(tt(
x(tTP(
$x,pPL
L,,t,pPP
,ptP,p,p$P
LtPtLtP
t,pPP,p,t
PPLtt,t(
,tpx$xP
LPL,P
Px$LtT
TPLtLxt
,t,p,
PL,t(P
PLtPT,tL
Lt(P,
tt(tPL,P(
Px,tTP,t,p
,tLPpTt
pPpPt
PptPT$
,PPL$x,tL
tLPTt
,$$tp
P$(P,$
,$$xPP,L
$t(P,t
P(P,L$
L$PPL$,$t
$PLPP
PLPPpP
HPt,$$P(
,p,PTtx
($,P(P
xPLPp,
,$tPL
$,$,(
,p,x,LP
p,t$,p
P,$HtL
,LPHP
,P(,L
T$,$P$
PPL,(,
PpPLP,
,pPpPP
tTPPL,
$,p,p,
tLtPp
t,p,p
ttL,P
t(PHP
Ttp,P(
P0,T,
H,tPpPtP
P(P,,L
,P(x,
P(x,(
P(,PLt,
T,(x$
T,TP,t(
P(P,(
,x,0LP
$,LPpxT
PTL,L
x,t(t,T
,PPxt
L,t(,
P0$x$
$(P,H0t,P
t0PPL,
t0x,P(T
x,T,x
(P,TPP
0P0tT
PTx,PTx
PTPPxxPx
0P,,L
t0p0tT
PPT,T
P(xPT,
,(P(T
,p,L0P(P
PTtT,L,P(
tTPLxP
PP(P,t
,PTtTPTt
,xt0PT
PTTP(
(P0PLPTPLt
x0T,x,x
,ptPxt0$
PTpTP(x
P(P,t0
0P,,P
,xtTP(t(
PTP,LTP
,(t0t(x,P(
,L0P,
tTxtT
Tt,P,P,P
x0t0t
P(x,P
tx,(,
x0t0tP
,L0,P(t,x0
t,L,t,LT,P
0t,p0
t1x,x(
(0P,(
tTxTtP
,tL,T
L,P,L
1P,1tP
,x,xtTPLx
,p,x,
P,(,L,t0t(
0t,x,t(xT
PtTPt
P(P(P,P(,P
P,,PT
0PxPT,
,txTt,
,xTxPPTP
P(,xTP
T,T,x,p
P,T,LPx,P(
xPxtTt(x,t
P(T,x
L,0t(tx(,L
LT,(P
t(TTtTt
Tx,xx,,L
t0t,x,tx,p
x,P(xxPLTx
t0,,LT
LPPTx,xx
Pt(t(,PTPL
,0$,L,x
,T,,L,
L0P,,L$
xxTtTtp
P,P,p,PT,P
TxTxtxxPxP
PxTP,pTttL
PLP,xPxp0t
PLPtP
0PPxt0t
tTtTtT
,PTtT
,T,L0P
xtxTPTt
PxPxT
t0,xTtxTxP
,P0t,,
xPx,p,
0PTxT
t(PTxPT
P,pTt
x,P,x
t,P,L0
,LT0PTP(t0
xtPxTP,,0P
PTTxTx,T
TPPLT
P,P(PP(xPP
,pTxt
x,pPxPtTtT
P(,P0L,
P(P,L
,x,xxTtTxx
xTxtT
,,LPLP,TP
0,p,,L,P(x
P,P,x
Q,T,tTxP(T
,PTPTxP,
t(P,,x
PTxTtx
0tLx,xP
L,tPPL
P0P0t,xxPx
TtxxP
PxPxxT
x,x,LTP
(xt,p,
,L,LP
x,xPp
,LP,L
P0P(x,PP
L,PTP
TxxTxPxTT-
t,(,(,tLtT
PtTtT
t,t(xP,
,x,T0tT
(P(,L
$0P,0p,P
PtxPT,PTPT
PTP(TP
Tt0P(P(
,x,TP
Tx,xT,0xx,
$0P,x,
PP0x,PTxTx
LT,x,p,p
0t(P(PTPLx
ttTt0P
TtTxTx
P,L0t0tT,
p0xP(
P,L0x0t
(t,LPP,$0L
,TPxx,pxPP
(,PTtx
pTtTtxPxT
PLtxPx
,10txP
,tPLP
PTuTP0PTQx
PxPPx0
TtxPxtLP
xTtxT
t(tPT
Tt\tx,x
tTtLP
TTPPLP
$xPLPL,t
t(PPL,xTt,
tPL,tTP,
x,TPptTx
TtxxPtx,p
0txPpxPt,x
TxtLP
,T,P,
P0t,xT
Tx,xxPxTxP
PtLtt(t(xt
TPxTt
tTxPpTx
xPTtT
t,xTtx,x
pTP,x
P,0t,
p,PPT
0txTttT
tLxtPPL
Pxt,,P,LT
Ptx0P
P0xTxx
LTtPp
TxPxtP
t,tTP0
PxtTtTtT
$,L,x,LPTT
,P(x,LPPT
P$,,(x,
Tx,(tTxt,L
PLPPLP
xPPpTP
,xPpTPPL
TxTxP
t0t(T,x0,L
TTPLTPTTPL
Ttpt,(P,
,LPtL,P,pP
TtxtT,
LxtTt
LPpTP(t
PL0tTxx
PPTxtLxTtP
Tx,xt
,xPPLxtTP
,t,x,t,
,(PP(,LtTP
L,t(x,xPxP
TP(P,
LPLtp,p,p,
x,xPP(
PpPtT
TtpxP
xTPTTP0t(t
,LTPPLTPLP
PL,tx,(t(
PLt(P,pT
$,L,,
xTPLPLPtTP
,x,xPxPxxP
PP(tL
tPxpPL
,t,Pt
t(x,P
TtP(,x,TPT
(,P,TP(t,t
t,PpTPPp
,Px,x,xTt,
LPTtx,t(xP
PLxx,x
,LPt,tx
PxPpP
,,$,t,
,tpTxTP
0t(x0x0tTP
TPTP0t(t
,LTPP
,LPL,LPTPL
t(xP,
p,(t,LPLTt
,xPpxPLT
xtL,P
,LxtP
PpPtT
tTtt0t
,p0t0xx
$,L,P(
x,pt(
t(Pt,
pTPL,(ttp
t,(P(ttT
PHxtTt,t
tTt(t
xPxTtT
xTPPxTPLTP
TPP,TtLx,t
LPL0tT
,tTPL
t(P,xT
tPpTx,
TtT,T
TtTtP
P0t0t
x,pTP(P,,p
0$,TPxtTxT
tL,$TtLPPp
,L,PP
P,PLPL,
PpxPx
0tTtxPT,PT
,xt,xtTpTP
LTPPTPx,P
Px,L,T,x
ttPxxt,t(
(tTt(
t0P,p,
,TTPTPx(P
pTt(t,,x
PL,LPpTt
0t(x,
L,xPx
TxtLxTx
xPxPx,tp
TPTxTPT
p,t0t,t
,LTPLP,x,
t,,pxxtTtt
pPx,xTttxT
PptPt
PTPTP,
,,xx,
TPLP(x,
txPLt,
xPLPTt(x
TtTxTxx
ttLxP
TtPxx
PxtTt
(PLP,x(PPT
tTPxT
tTx,txP
ttPtP
ttTP,tTtt
xTtTxt(xtL
PTP(P,PP
xPxPx
pPtPPL,
TxPxT
xP(xP
PLPTtT
TttTt
t,ttLx
tLtpTtTtxt
(t(tt,
PTtPxP
TP(tP
PxtPL,tP
pxTtTtt
TtTPtxPtT
PtTP,
PtPpT
,(tpPtL
,PPLPpt(tP
p,LPt(t,tT
TtTtL
xPLPp
,t,xPtPtTt
0tPtT
Tx,,LP
t,p,t
t(tTtTPp
,t,x(t(
LtPL,t,P,t
PtPtPxP
,xtx,
,L,tLxPx
tLt,H
$Px$P
P$,,PTtPx
P($P,P
TtTxP
,pPLP(PLP,
PpP$t
tLtP(
pTtPtP
P$,p,
,L,t,
P(P,xxTx,
,t,t,,
PP,t,$
tTxPx
xPt,L,P
T,pPxTtx
xx0P,
TtPPLT
xPtTtP
Lt,p,p
1xx0x
0x01x0P
TTxT10
(t0y0
P,xPU,UTU0
P0xyTy
x01T,x
txPtLT
Pt,tP
PpPxPtT,P
,L,(P,p,tT
Pxtt,t
P,PLt
Pt,(P,
,,P,,
,PT,PPxt0t
LPPxPx
(P00t,ttT
,PLPPx
Tt,tTt
Tx,P,tP
PptPt
p636-1
ftsTitleOverride
The Novel in 19th-Century Britain (page 1)
ftsTitle
Sam Weller, shoeblack at the White Hart and later to become Mr Pickwick's devoted servant, in an illustration by 'Phiz' (Hablot K.
Browne) for Charles Dickens's Pickwick Papers. Originally published in 20 monthly parts from April 1836 to November
The Novel in 19th-century Britain (1 of 3)
With improved printing processes and the vogue for serialization in magazines, the novel became the dominant literary form in 19th-century Britain. At its best it is both popular and literary, as with the works of Charles Dickens, which were often read aloud in the family circle. The world that most 19th-century British novelists were writing about was one characterized by increasing urbanization and industrialization - a world dominated by the owners of capital.
At the same time the novel was increasingly accepted as a serious art form. Its major advances are seen in a deepening realism, both of a psychological and social nature, and in the development of regional writing. The 19th-century novel at times reflects the optimistic energy of the age, but is also concerned with corruption, injustice, and the uncaring nature of capitalist industrial society. Its hallmarks are a radical questioning and probing, and a strongly moral emphasis on personal relationships. Some writers use the device of an ironic commentary that establishes a close relationship between narrator and reader.
Romantics and post-Romantics
Jane Austen (1775-1817) is the mistress of the ironic manner, though she is writing about a very different society from that of the Victorians, and for a narrower readership. She was born in a Hampshire rectory, and led a reflective and retired life, with Bath and London as the boundaries of her travel. Country village life was her domain, defined as 'the little bit (two inches wide) of ivory on which I work'.
Her novels Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1815) and Persuasion (1818) are astutely observed comedies of middle-class manners. They are unpassionate romances with an emphasis on morality - balanced and witty, concisely ironic, employing natural dialogue that reveals a refined and incisive mind. Her early novel Northanger Abbey (1798) mocks the sensational 'Gothic' novels of the time.
The novels of Charlotte (1816-55) and Emily (1818-48) Bront both contain Gothic elements. With their sister Anne (1820-49), they were raised in the parsonage at Haworth, Yorkshire, and adopted male pen names to get their work published. Charlotte's Jane Eyre (1847) is the story of an independent woman who refuses to become the mistress of the man she loves. After Shirley (1849) she wrote Villette (1853), forsaking the regional location and using her teaching experiences in Brussels. Wuthering Heights (1847), the only novel of Emily Bront, is a complex and original masterpiece. It is beyond moral and literary convention, and concerns the consuming and self-destructive love of Catherine and Heathcliff. The novel combines violence, poetry, supernatural and Gothic devices, and the story is filtered through a variety of narrators.
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
tTxUx
t,QTP]
PUxUP
t,x0$
yT,,y
TPUxQ
t(HTP
U$TxT
y,y$,,PTyP(
,L,U,PPPUPT
Q,y1UTPQU
x,U\UTQ
,L,,tT
0yx-(
Ux,yx$
,,$t,
,P,tP
,$,y0T
P$yy]t
x-P-L
yTTTt]
PyTty
,U,MTTy
$]tt]
xy0t]
,y,TT
P]10y
Q\x,x
,xPpPPt,t,U
xt9,1
TtyTyt
\PPx$
x,xPx
,P$1$
$$xPt
T,y,$
ytTyP
-0,,yT
L,u0yP(Ux,$
]x]P(y
l$$$P
(]$P]
,($Tt
TP(PT
xP(PUx
PM,PP
(,L,(
tLPP$
x,HHP
Pt0PTxPtx
,t,tLH
($P$t
P(,PPU$,y
lPHPPLx
Q,,TPLT
PyT$$T
y,x,x
\,LP,y
]TPUTy\P
HxPLt
,LT,0
,xP1xUTU
PH$Pt
LxUT,(y
t-x,L
TP($$P
$$xHPt
0,UUP
1\xy0P
(t,y$
,x,LP$
,yPU0y0u
$TPPtLP,
UPLPMP
t),p,
yTy0Q
tx,y,
P,(,t(P
TxUT,
yx,1xxT
UT]Pxtx$t
Uy,(P
P(Q$,
t,L,P(PLt,,L
x0yTU,yTx
TUxyT
T,P0,LPt
xUxxTy
Ux1Tx1xy
,L1x,
,T,xy,U
tyPPLT
pxTPT$UPP
UTl]P
,,L,,t
TPQTT
t,L,PL
Ttx($
yTy,t]
,LUtTyxt
TUxTP(,
xTt,LT
PyTx,
\yx]x
$xTuxTHUxy
x,yxUx
,,x,yPt(
0y,x(yPL
UtUxU
TtpTTT
0tTPUP,yPxUx,tyPyPy,xT
T,UTPTT$
PpPLT
,PUHUP
,tx,P(t$x
Pyt(y,x-pTu
tTP0PTx,
UxPp,
0PpxPx,xxTyx
,x1,yx
TPTPxx,pPpTxP
0y]LU
PM,$U,,P$,
tPxt0P,(P
$,t,tx
PP,t0tTTPPTPt,,t
(,,pTxT
,(xPt
,TTtTytTx
TP0PT
PTT0xPLTtP
t,HTT
1xtUx
t1P(,
P,t,xTxT
$,LHy
xTxTx
,P-TtUx1
x(P,x$
tTxTx
TPPxPL,y
PPP1P,yTx$x
1t]P(HP,
,UUQ,LPp,
TxTtU$
xTt\tUx
TPTxT
yTtpTxU
,xPyP
,LTy,U(PTx
QP]t0u,0tx
$0t0x,xx,,$
TxTyt
xUx,Lxy
xUxxUP,PT
xTxPx0Pxt
PTxx0
,PTP,L
PxxPP(x,
Px,y,P(
0xtTPTTTtyT
Lxx0Txx-
,0Px,
$xTxUP
UTxUP-Ly
lTtLt
P(P$,xP$t
TH$,$x
,xUt\x
UP]xQx
yPTPyP
PP]pTP
U$xHxt(PTP
PU,$,x,
TUxPTPty
t,L$,
UxUyT
TPTPL
0PPxPT,p
QTy,TPt
TPTPLP
tT,xxP
tt0tP
PUT,$xTx
Ux,]L
UP(y\
TyTtx
yxTyx1xx]P]xxP
1xUPT
$,t,L,H
x-x,$
x$]u0
PxUT,x
x,,LTP
UP0tT
x--,L
(0t0P
tUxxTy
T$,$1
ty\yT
TTTx,
yTx,P
x,UT,
HPtTxP
P]x,y0
p0yxx-,1
t)xx,
,x]xU
,y0yT
x0,0yT$x
,xPTPxTx
1xTxTx
y,-xT
0,p$,1PPL,
tUPUTt-x
pTPPPT,P
t,L,PQ(,U,TP,
1xUP(T
,p,P0$P$
$,yPt,
PU,P,(
,p,yT
xUt(y
]PPyTPTPTtpx,xy,L
TP,(PTxxTy
tLP-PU$,x
\xPPPx
LP$Ux,
pPyxPpT
HTtt,L
,TtxP,
Tt0tL
Px(t0PpP
PxyPy
PPyTt$,
TyTPT
,-t1$T
UtxPP(x1t,U
P(PUxt(xx,P
0xTPLxt
,y,LPP(Px,t,p
,L,x,P,,x,T$,
TxyxUx0
p,x,P
y,x-t
LT-tx,(
,,Py0P
,y,1P
,x,t(yPyxPy
txTP$TP
TP-pT
Ptt(,
PTPxx
p11t1Uxy-xT
tTP(t(x$Tx
Ty,xt(,qUPPy
xUyTyt,xt(U
TP(t(
xPxxy
,PMP,
0PLtT
$T$$PLPtLtTtP(P$
tx,xtTtPx
P$$,p0x,x
TP0$,,LTPT
x0xUT
TT,xTTTP0t
TtUx,
0tx,L,
L,U,x1
PUx,xPyx
PTPtP
\tTtLP,pP
0t(t,y\
tUxttT
t,xPx
x-xx1
tx-x,xxU
xTPTxP
xPtyT
UTyPxP
L,,(0
t(t,p,p
PT,tP
TPLPL,tPy,L
TtPxx,xTtTtTyP
TuTyT
,y,xTP
x0PxTxxTx0x
0xPTx
$,UPP
P0,,P,xUx
PtyPxT
Tx-TT
\xUU,
UTPUt
TxTyTx
0xTU,L]
\PTUy
Ux1TU
PtPtTP
,y0PQ
yTUTx
]Pp,y
TxyTxPL,
-xxUT
,yPPL
,PUt]L
,x,U,
TUTxUxT
x]xyxUPPpT
$xUx,
y0xUx
xPyxP
,(,x0t
0PTT,
x]T-PT
yPtTtt
H,L,$TP-t,L
y\yTy
xTPxPP0U
U,y,,LUTTt
TyUtUPL
,pUxUxTPT
t0t),
t)yxP
$,xTTyx
tTx$x,
PP,xT,1tT
x-TP,T
xTUPx
,(P-,(
,(UP,L
MUT-,P
PP,x,,t,TxTt
tUyTt,xUx
0y\y0
t$]xU
TxTPL
,pPt(
,pPt,
tTtPpTHP
,tLxT
PLTtUxPqTx
TxPtTt
p636-2
ftsTitleOverride
The Novel in 19th-Century Britain (page 2)
ftsTitle
Thomas Hardy portrayed most of his characters as people struggling against an indifferent cosmic force that inflicts suffering on them. Many of his critics disliked his work for its pessimism, although his novels included several comic rural characters.
The Novel in 19th-century Britain (2 of 3)
The social novel
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-81), who later became prime minister (1868 and 1874-80), was concerned with what he saw as the adverse effects of capitalism on the social fabric of the nation. In the early part of his career he outlined his social manifestos in his trilogy of novels, Coningsby (1844), Sybil (1845) and Tancred (1847).
A message of social reconciliation emerges in the work of Elizabeth Gaskell (1810-65). The novels Cranford (1851-3) and Wives and Daughters (1866) are kindly and tolerant portraits of provincial life drawn with deft and delicate humor. But in Mary Barton (1848) and North and South (1855) she records her social awareness of industrial problems, while in Ruth (1853) she bravely tackles the problem of illegitimacy.
Social concern is always present in the work of the greatest mass communicator of the 19th century, Charles Dickens (1812-70). London, especially in its commercial and social aspects, permeates his work. In Oliver Twist (1837-8) he attacked Poor Law administration as well as exposing criminal low life; in Nicholas Nickleby (1838-9) corrupt schools; in Bleak House (1852-3) the law and social deprivation; and in Little Dorrit (1855-7) debtors' prisons and financial swindling. His highly developed social conscience derived in part from his own experience of childhood poverty and deprivation, in particular his period of forced labor in a blacking warehouse. His two first-person narratives, David Copperfield (1848-50) and Great Expectations (1861), retain a strongly autobiographical flavor.
Dickens's social concern is combined with a richly imaginative and intensely humane presentation of character and scene. He stands for human values against hypocrisy, crime and snobbery. His creations are vivid and often larger than life; his humor is immediate, being both verbal and pictorial in effect. The numerous 20th-century film adaptations of his work testify to his enduring popularity.
William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-63) takes as his subject matter the exploration of social and personal morality. He was both artist and writer, illustrating many of his own books. He established himself as a major novelist with Vanity Fair (1846-8), which is set in the period of the Battle of Waterloo (1815), and castigates the corruptions of society. His other main works are Pendennis (1848-50), Henry Esmond (1852) and The Newcomes (1853-5), each embodying his ironic view of life, his feeling of history and period, his humor and command of pathos.
George Eliot, the pen name of Mary Ann Evans (1819-80), was fervently religious as a young woman, but rejected her faith in 1842, and later scandalized conventional social prejudice by living openly with her lover and mentor, G.H. Lewes. But she retained throughout her life a high-minded sense of duty, moral responsibility and altruistic endeavor. Her chief works - Adam Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), Silas Marner (1861) and her masterpiece Middlemarch (1871-2) - are all set in the Midland region where she grew up. They are realistic portrayals of provincial life, with ironic humor and incisive observation of human behavior. In these novels, and in Daniel Deronda (1874-76), George Eliot penetrates the surface of social convention and lays bare the motives of human action.
The prolific Anthony Trollope (1815-82) was a friend of Thackeray's and wrote an admiring study of his work. He developed Thackeray's social concerns into perceptive studies in two important novel sequences, The Barsetshire Novels (1857-67), in which he created an imaginary county, and the political Palliser Novels (1864-80). Trollope is fascinated by the world of political machination and in particular with the pressures created by political responsibility. His late masterpiece The Way We Live Now (1875) attacks the financial corruption of his own society in a manner influenced by Thackeray's Vanity Fair.
Social institutions such as the family and the Church were minutely and scathingly analyzed by Samuel Butler (1835-1902) in The Way of All Flesh (1903), which traced the fortunes of four generations of a middle-class family.
Both Butler and the novelist, poet, artist and printer William Morris (1834-96) explored social issues in the context of imaginary societies. In his novel Erewhon (1872), Butler depicts a remote district where moral virtue is equated with physical health in a crude version of Darwinism. In News from Nowhere (1891), Morris wrote of a Utopian socialist future state where technology has been harnessed to serve man's needs rather than enslave him.
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Jane Eyre and Mr Rochester are interrupted by a visit from the madwoman in an illustration from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bront. The novel's intense emotional and narrative power made it a success. However, it was not thought suitable reading for young women despite its adherence to conventional moral standards.
The Novel in 19th-century Britain (3 of 3)
The regional novel
The greatest regional novelist is Thomas Hardy (1840-1928). His setting is Wessex, the name he gives to Dorset and the surrounding counties. Hardy's reputation was made by Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), but his characteristic view of man as subject to a malign fate is seen from The Return of the Native (1878) onwards. This was followed by the great tragedies The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), The Woodlanders (1887) and Tess of the D'Urbervilles (1891). Despite being widely admired in literary circles, contemporary reviewers in the popular press castigated his so-called immorality and pessimism. Disgusted by the adverse reception of Jude the Obscure (1895), Hardy turned from fiction to concentrate on poetry and short stories and produced a verse drama, The Dynasts (1904-8), in his last years.
Another regional novelist of some importance is the later writer Arnold Bennett (1867-1931), who produced stories and novels of ordinary small-town lives in the Midlands.
Towards the modern novel
The majority of the 19th-century novelists worked within the Realist tradition, but the strains inherent in late 19th-century society became apparent in the work of novelists writing at the end of the century, who often use techniques to be developed by the Modernists.
Some of the most perceptive writing of this later period comes from novelists springing from American and European traditions, such as Henry James and the Polish-born Joseph Conrad (1857-1924). Conrad's early sea stories, notably Lord Jim (1902), are in the Realist manner, but with Heart of Darkness (1902), he experimented with Modernist techniques to analyze the corruptions at the heart of imperialism and the human psyche. The journey of his narrator, Marlowe, up a West African river exposes the brutality of colonial rule in the Belgian Congo and relates this to a wider 'darkness' of the human soul.
Conrad's concern with instability and corruptibility is further developed in The Secret Agent (1907) and Under Western Eyes (1911). These novels, in which traditional linear narrative is disrupted by breaks in the time-sequence, depict the anarchic face of the modern industrial city and the underworld of international terrorism. In his masterpiece, Nostromo (1904), the facade of Western economic progress is exposed by an exploration of its adverse effects on the imaginary South American country of Costaguana. Conrad is now seen as one of the most important Modernist writers.
KIPLING
The poet, novelist and short-story writer Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) is often thought of as the chauvinistic glorifier of British imperialism, though his attitude towards it was probably more complex than that. Judgments of Kipling's vast and varied output were diverse: he was admired by the popular reader, but accused of vulgar jingoism by liberal intellectuals.
Plain Tales from the Hills (1888) are tales of British soldiers in India and Burma, whose cynical realism recalls Maupassant. His school stories, Stalky & Co. (1899), draw on memories of his own schooldays and recount the escapades, teasings, bullyings and beatings of English boarding-school life. His novel Kim (1902) presents a vivid portrayal of India through the experiences of an abandoned orphan who becomes a British agent. But Kipling's most durable and popular achievements are his tales for children: the Jungle Book (1894), and the whimsical Just So Stories (1902).
* THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL
* THE BRITISH ROMANTICS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Rip Van Winkle is reunited with friends after a twenty-year sleep. The success of the story of Rip Van Winkle (1820), which was an adaptation of a German folktale, made its author, Washington Irving, one of the first American writers to be known abroad.
American Literature of the 19th Century (1 of 3)
In the 19th century American literature took on a specifically national character in its treatment of certain themes and ideas. Uncontaminated by history or tradition, the New World presented exciting possibilities for the creative writer.
The successful War of Independence (1775-83) gave the USA the right to set its own constitution and create its own society. The writing of a native literature was a key factor in this process. From 1861 to 1865 the country was torn apart by the Civil War and afterwards there was an even deeper need for literature to unite the nation and re-establish a national consciousness.
In Fenimore Cooper's evocation of frontier life, Whitman's celebration of American democracy, Hawthorne's analysis of New England Puritanism and Thoreau's and Emerson's American brand of Romanticism can be seen conscious efforts to create a national identity.
Frontier literature
Washington Irving (1783-1859) was the first American author to achieve an inter- national readership. His early writings included satirical essays and poems, but it was his collection The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819-20) that made him a celebrity both in America and Britain. The collection consists of essays, sketches of English life and American adaptations of German folk tales, including most notably 'Rip Van Winkle' and 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow'. In later life he traveled extensively in the American West and wrote three books about his experiences, including A Tour of the Prairies (1835).
James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) was responsible for establishing the historical novel in the United States. His first success was The Spy (1821), an exciting tale of the American Revolution. The Pioneers (1823), the first of his Leatherstocking Tales, introduced the character of Natty Bumppo or Hawkeye, the archetypal American pioneer or wilderness man. This, and later novels in the sequence, notably The Last of the Mohicans (1826) and The Pathfinder (1840), describe in detail the frontier experience of the White settlers but also present a vivid picture of the traditions and customs of the American Indians. The novelty of Cooper's subject gained him popularity in both America and Europe. Its prime importance, however, was in its expression of themes of great and enduring significance in American fiction, such as the tension between innocence and experience, and wilderness and civilization.
The Transcendentalists
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) and Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) lived and worked in the same New England town, Concord in Massachusetts, and were the most important members of an intellectual movement known as Transcendentalism, which insisted on the oneness of all forms of life. The interests of the transcendentalists were as broad as those of the European Romantics who so influenced them. In their periodical The Dial, questions of philosophy, religion, politics and economics were debated.
Emerson developed the idea of an 'Over-Soul', which included God, humanity and nature, and many of his writings, including the essay Nature (1836), are centrally concerned with this relationship. In his verse and prose there is a Wordsworthian reverence for nature.
Thoreau was a political radical who protested against slavery and the war with Mexico. His radicalism is expressed in his essay Civil Disobedience (1840), which advocated techniques of peaceful protest taken up by Gandhi in the 20th century. His antimaterialist philosophy led him to embark on an experiment in self-sufficiency in the woods near Concord. Walden, or Life in the Woods (1854) describes his daily physical and spiritual existence in the cabin he built himself beside Walden Pond.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) lived in the experimental Transcendentalist community at Brook Farm for a brief period and used his experiences there in a novel, The Blithedale Romance (1852). A long stay in Italy provided the inspiration for The Marble Faun (1860). Hawthorne was at times a critic of what he saw as the excesses of Transcendentalist philosophy. He moves away from the concerns of this group in his great novel The Scarlet Letter (1850). Set among the original Puritan settlers in New England, the novel tells the story of a woman who is ostracized for bearing an illegitimate child, and explores the themes of sin, guilt and hypocrisy.
* ROMANTICISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
M-UUU
zVU^U)
-1111M11--
1-,--
Uy-)PV
M1,-U
,)-)zz1
z1-U-M
QUU-1
yz-M,u$
-M,1-
-1MUzV
1LQVy31y
(Q,q-
$-)P1
,-uzU
y-]yy
$U1U-Q
*-Q--Qy
QMU-Y
1U^U1
QUM-Q1
))-1--
QU--0
1u1$_
1V2,z1VQV
---V1
V1Q1z
$1Vy,
u -Uz
y,M1-
t)-P1
-UU-1
(Q-1-
22y^Q
M111Q2
U1Q-Y
)Y1U-Y-
Q-TQ)-VQ(
-(-Q)-y
q]^Q-Y
Q-uQ1u
M,-qPM
-)1$Qy1
yQUQM
1)--M
y1-R-
Q-1I1-
-$-(-,u
-)VU1-
UQ---M
-U2U1
y---M
P)u1u
.U1-)U1-----
)1Q-y1
QuMupu
Q-M11-,
)1-11Q
1R1R1U
-M1Q2Q1--M1-Q
Q1Q)QU---
Q11-1U
ZU2-2P-
.Q,MQ
MPQqt)
z----
--)1-
1-M-1
UV-P^
Q---)
$y2P1Q,-
1)U1z
MzY--,1
z2U-)-
,--M1
1$-Q,
V2y-.-
VU2-P)
Y1)----
Q1Q)y
z^z1Q1Q
V2U1Q)
YU-Q11
-Q1-)
L-1-M-
M11y1y
zUUPV
Q)1Q--
UVUUz-
1M--)V-2Q)--
-y1--)P1
Q11VP1
1yy1P
-U---
1--Q^V-U-
)QV-1-
-MQ-U
VyUQ1Z1-
R--2Q--
V--UV
Q-1-Q
)1-Q)-
2U$UzU
1-----
VU,1-1
)1--(-
V-M2P1Q)
-Qz-y
y--1-
-M--M1--1-
U-Q11-)U--
1UU11
Q(V1yV
M-1)-
---U1
--Q1)Q1
1Vy1V
,-1-M-Q
Q1u---M--Q1
Q--2Q21z
^QW1)U-
1Q1--1
Q)11M1-
M--,Q
-M1)--
U111Q
,--)---L-1-M
)Q1)Q-
2,1y-)Q
1Q-1z-)Q
Q--,-P
P)QUV
QU1zU
TVz]z
)Q-V-1
zU--M
Q(QU-yU
Q---M
)----
)uu--
U-MVQ
Q1Q1y
Q5M1Q
1Q1.U
U-1Q1Q
21--1Q11
y-Qzz
Q1QV1Q
V^VV-VQUz
U-U1--Q
P)-1V
Q-]1QUU
-)-1(--
-Y---
--)Y1
QUQ1M-y
-,---
-M-2P)
1-U1U--,
Q1)---Q2Q(Q-
Q)-1-M
1-1Q)1y
QyQ1Q)
Q(Q-U
Q2P21
*,Q)-
I-)Q%
-,--)
1zY-1
--%1M-
U1)-,Q1
MY1I1zZ*
1Q-)Q
-V1--,)P
P-y-Q
QU11Q
-U-11)
Q111z
UV1-y
Q----
-Q1-2-,-1-1
-1M1$
1)1-,--1Q-1)1Q
M,-11y
U-1--
---U-
z1Q11)
1-1-y
-11Q-1)-,1-111
]z--1)
--,U-
------
U--1)Q
-y1-z
----1U1
--U--
-1-U-1Q
z]y1UQ
--1Q-1*
-,1Q)
-----Q1
1Q)Q11
Q)U1U111U
1)2$1
^-Q1Q
)1V1)
1Q)UVy
--1(-
)1M-11-
,UM-1zU
U-1QUQ
1--Q1y11
1UQ-U-
-UQ11
1--1(
Q--$--
y--VU
--1---
-QVU-
z^Q^z1-z
-Q]u1--
-U-M--
M1-11
)U1z1-
--V,-
-2-N-
-Q)U1
-U-11--1M
UUz1M11
y1,Q1U
Q)-V121VV
-M-,-
^-y2U
-1--yU
1-Q--M1
Q)P^]
U1)1-
z1U2U11Q
.11M-
y1L-11
^-----1
VVVQ)1
)Q)1-
1-1-y
-1UV-
y-1)1
Q-P-11
UU-z1
Q-1U1y
-11-U
P)U1)
1-M-y
y--VU11
--1-M
-1V1)
-Q-1Q1-
U-)Q1
1y-1U1
Q11U1
(Q1U-
1,M2Q
z11y1
111-1
1-z11-U
$-0U-UV
,y1PyZ
-U-z1
Uz-L1--
u---%
VQ),1
)U-Y2V
)U1-MYVU-
YUU]1M
y1---
Q1y1)
)Q-LQ
-y-]z1QM
1T1,-
-1Q-M
Q-)zU
)v)Q21-
yU--Q
Qy----1-1)-
uy-Yy
uU---Q
)Q-1-
Q)-.-1-U---
z^z:z
P1M1---1M
Q)--M1
--1-1MY1Q)---
ty.21M2
U-L--1
--,Q)
--zU1Q
-P11uU-Q,-y
)-1)Q
-)-MUU
MUQ1-
-z1zU
-UTQ1Q--
M11--
11--1-
1Q),M
Qy-21
Q1^z2
UUQ1y-
Uu1UyU
-1M1y
Q)Q1U
-N0Q^
1y1u1
)U,)Q1
M1UVz
-M--,
UVz1-
^z-1)
Uz1-z
2Q1V-
$V-,:
U12UV
1zVU21)
U2P)u
Q11V1
---^Q
2U2VU1
2Vz2Y
2Q1:z2Q
U.1yV1V
1y-ZQ1
)z1UV
V1V1--U-U
--,-V-
1z^V1
z21)Q2-
UVV-U
2-U11Q-U
-MRzv
.U-21M111V
P111-
zYz1z
1(1--
L11-Y
-11Q1
$-11-,)-x1-
Q0-)YU$
--y11
-Q--)
%P),1
y1-V1U
$1z1$1-
y--T-
QUUQ-,-
--,---U-
----M
U-1)U
---1--
1--1Q-)1--1M
)1)---11--
1-Q---M
,M--,1-y-
1U-1-1
L1Q1U-
-1U-Q
1Q1z1U-M1Q,
P)-11
)y,M-
-U--Q
2111U---
Ly1--
Q1-PQ
------
-1Q)-
Pyy2U-y1
)21P1)-1
-Q0uUQUyQ-
-1U1MU111
)P1Q1Q
]P---
Q)U1-2--1
1111z-1--1-
--11MY-U1ZU11Q
-U1--1---1
Q-L-)
--1----11--U1)---1Q
Q--1Q11y-11
U---1,
Q--)-11
P1---,----
p638-2
ftsTitleOverride
American Literature of the 19th Century (page 2)
ftsTitle
Walt Whitman two years before his death. On publication, Whitman's verse was attacked for its freedom and sexual explicitness. It broke with tradition - using free verse -
and encouraged poets to experiment with style and subject-matter.
American Literature of the 19th Century (2 of 3)
Psychological frontiers
The poet, critic and short-story writer Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) worked for much of his brief and difficult life as a magazine editor, an advantageous position from which to publish his work but not a lucrative one. Poe concentrated initially on verse, publishing three volumes of poetry before he was 25. His collection of stories Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque (1840) established the tone of writing with which his name was to become synonymous - that of terror, mystery and the macabre. The collection includes Poe's best-known story 'The Fall of the House of Usher'. His later tale 'The Murders in the Rue Morgue' has been described as the first modern detective story and introduced the character of the detective C. Auguste Dupin, who was to appear in several other tales. Poe's exploration of the darker side of human experience endeared him to the French Symbolists, and in particular to Baudelaire, who translated many of his works.
Herman Melville (1819-1891) went to sea at the age of 19 and was to bring many of his sea-going adventures into his fiction. His first book, Typee (1846), draws on his experience of being marooned on a South Sea Island among a tribe of cannibals. His experience on board a whaling ship is reflected in his most ambitious novel, Moby-Dick (1851). Here, like Hawthorne in The Scarlet Letter, Melville portrays a community set apart from the world, united in a common purpose but separated by individual motivations, and uses it to explore the complexities of the human condition.
On a simple narrative level, the novel is a powerful and dramatic account of Captain Ahab's obsessive and ultimately fatal quest for the giant white whale that has bitten off his leg. But behind the bare facts of the doomed voyage of the Pequod lies a rich pattern of symbols that have been interpreted in many different ways: the ship's multiracial crew as a microcosm of the USA and of wider humanity; the whale as nature, God and the universe. Largely unappreciated in Melville's lifetime, Moby-Dick is now recognized as a masterpiece. Its multifaceted and experimental narrative techniques, including the insertion of a dissertation on whales and whaling, prefigure the modern novel.
Melville also wrote many outstanding short stories, including 'Bartleby the Scrivener' (1856), and completed a novella, Billy Budd, Foretopman, shortly before his death.
* ROMANTICISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1111-11
:1-^19
1111U9:
11U11
U b1 :
-1111-1
-11-1-
-11:-:1
:-1 b
-1111
U11-1-1-
:^1:U
-11-1-
91^1U1
:11-1-
1---1U1
111-:
-1-9-1
-11-11
11-1-
1-1-11--1
--1--
-1-111-1
-1U11-
-11-1
1 :U
-U1 -
11111--Y
1-111-
-b-11]1-
b U Y:
- -16
1111-
Y111^
11:Y-1
-1-1
-1111
11-b^^
-9U1-Y
-Y11-
11-11
-11-1
11-1-
-111:
1:Y:U
U111-111-
11-11
^:-1U
]11U1]1
:1-1-
1----
]^1--
1-1-1
91U111-
11119U
U1--1-9
1U]1--9
-111--
b11-9
19U11-
Uf-1U
1:1-1
U:U1
1--1^
11-1-
-1-1-
^11 1111-
:-11--
^1--111-
111-91
-9-1-
-11---
-11-1
U11-11:
-111--
--1-91Y
-19111-
1-1--1U
1-1--
-1-11
11111
--1-1-
-1]11
--1-1-9
-11-1
-1-Y1-
-111-1
1--1-
---111
--11-11111-
-1-191
1-1--11
1111191
--0Ub
1U911
111-1-1-1
1-11U9
U111-
1-1--1-
11--1-1-1-
11-111-1-
-11--
111U11
11111
U11-111
11-111-
--11-U
11-1110
-1^1
11-1-1
---1111
^1111
1^1^b
-11-11
-111U1
-1-11
1]11-1-1
-1--11
19-Y1
11111
U1111-111-1-1U1^
1111U
1-9U1
--1---
19-111-
-1-11111
11-111-
-1-1]-
--1-,
---1--
111111
-,1-1
1-1--
-111U1
--1--
-1-11
-1-11
11191
]1-11
-1-1-
1-11-
-1:11-
-1-1-b
-11-1
111U1^
1--1-
-1-1--
-1-:111
1111-
--111
1U1-U:
19U11
-1-1-
1-191U91
1U11-
b-11U
---1--
:1-11-11
1U1-11-
--1--1
-1111-9
1bU9-
-U11U1
111b1
111911:1:U1:U:
1--11U
U9U11
Y1-1111U1-
11111U1
-1U11
11-11
]11:1^19^-
11---1-1--
1--1-
U-1119^1-
1-11111
1-11:-1
11^-1-:119
-1111
1111-91-
1----19
1-9-,
11-1-1U
1111-1-111
1111111^
Y-1191111111
111111
11-1U1
9-1-1-
1-11-
U1]11
-111--1
119^
Y1U:1U-1U1U
11------
1-111-
1Y11911b-11
--1--
111-1
111-1
1U11U11]
111]11-
11-11-
1-11U
111111U9--1
1-1111
-11--
111-1
-1-111-1
--111-11-11
]-111-
1--1111
1111]11
1--1-11-
-1--11
11U111
1-11-
1U1-1
1U11U
1U1U1
111-1U1
-1-19
-11-1-
--1---
-1--1
-11111
1bY1^
1-111
111--
1-111-
1U111
1U11-1111111119
-1-11111
-1--1
-1-1--
1U1^111
111-1-1111
1151U
U1-11-1
-1-11-1
1-91U1
1-U11U1
1-1-1
1-1-1
1U111-1
111]1
9--:19-1U
-1-1-
:-1-1
-111U
1-111-
---1-
-1--1
11-1-1-1-1
U91-111-111-
11119Z1-
1:1^:
U111-1
11-111
-1---
--1-1
-1-11-1-
11--11-
111U11
-11-1-1-
11-1-91-
111U111
1111 111]
-111]111^
U11-11
1-1--
11-11-11--11
:1-1U111-U1
]11:1U
1^^U9:
11111
-1-111
-1--1
--11-
1:U111
-11--
11U1111111
1Z9-11
1111-
1-111
11-1-1-
1--1-1-1
1-111
11-11
6U1U11:U
1U1191111
111-9111-1-
1-111
51111-1-
191-1-11
-1-11Y1U
1]--1-1111111U11
1:U19
1U11-
--1-1-
-11-1-1
1U11^1
11-11-
1-111U
U1-111111111-11111
1111-11--1-11
U111-1U1
--91U1
U11111
-111-
-111-
-1-1-
-1111U1-11-11-1--11
1111-1
U19-:11
:11-1-1
111-1
11^1U
1-11:
-1--111
1U119U1
:U:11
1:U11
]-11-1
11-111
1111-11U9U1
111-1
11111-Y
1U111-111
1U11-1
-9U11]
^1111U
11-1111
1U1111111111-1111-11:U:
1U111U11
p638-3
ftsTitleOverride
American Literature of the 19th Century (page 3)
ftsTitle
American Literature of the 19th Century (3 of 3)
National voices
When Walt Whitman (1819-1892) published his first collection, Leaves of Grass, in 1855, a distinctive American poetry was born. Whitman wrote: 'I celebrate myself, and sing myself', but believed that self to represent all humankind. His views were influenced by the work of Emerson and his work celebrates the simple fact of life, in all its forms - human, animal and the landscape of his country. Whitman was intensely patriotic and sought to encompass within his verse both the broadest of Democratic Vistas (1871) and the smallest of personal experiences. Democracy in America was Whitman's passion and his poetry expresses his ardor.
Mark Twain (the pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens; 1835-1910) helped define a national identity through the use of 'Yankee' humor. He made his name with a tall tale called 'The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County' (1867), which was reprinted in newspapers all across the USA. He earned his living giving lectures to packed houses and writing fiction and travel letters for publication. Memories of his own childhood beside the Mississippi River color The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1883) and his masterpiece The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). Twain used comedy and the misunderstandings arising from the navetu of his characters as a way to attack the injustices of society, particularly the horror and cruelty of slavery.
Moral consciousness
Emily Dickinson (1830-86), although a prolific and brilliant poet, published only seven poems during her lifetime. She lived with her father in Amherst, Massachusetts, and rarely left her home, preferring to communicate with the outside world by letter. She often defies convention in her poems, using unusual meter and punctuation and - to great effect - unexpected language. Based on a deliberately limited world in which the largest of truths can be expressed, Dickinson's poems evoke in minute detail the vividness of lived experience, and sensitively explore the spiritual relations between the individual and her maker.
Unlike Emily Dickinson, Henry James (1843-1916) traveled widely and eventually chose to make his home in England. His early novels explore the impact of Europe on Americans. The Portrait of a Lady (1881) describes the European 'education' of a young American, Isabel Archer. Later novels such as The Spoils of Poynton (1897) analyze in far greater depth what James saw as the peculiarly English character. But in his last three completed novels, The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904), he returned to his abiding interest in the contrast of the European and American character. These are truly psychological novels in that their chief events are the thoughts and realizations that 'happen' in the minds of the protagonists. While James was an inheritor of the main 19th-century Realist tradition (he was an admirer of Balzac and saw himself working in the tradition of Charles Dickens and George Eliot), he anticipated the modern novel in his intellectual, psychological and linguistic concerns.
* ROMANTICISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
UuMyU
UxyQQ(-Q
Q1--0y]
9y1u,uy-1MQMT
QUQLy
yUyQ1
U1y)y
UQx-y
UuUyyUyUQUup-(
-1)-y-$
UyQ-Uy-y-1
y1VyU
yUuU)Q-----
M-U-T-M
quQy-
yMyQ-y)1-Q
%z-zU
yuUuq
VY1.-
x1-,-Q
UuVyQUU
y-,)yyUP
-,M-)
---U-V
Vv)z1y
LuQuL
QUQ-yUy
$QyQu
UV11-1
--q-y
1y]yy
VMH-RM
1111U
q-1t-
1QUyUy
MUUQM-
PMUy-Q-
y-1)---I
,-1M-P
QyQL-H-
)P1QU
-,-1)--Q
--y--Q),MQ)
111-1
y1VQ,
$1)-)
Q--1-1zU
)uUy-N
---1-
1U1)Uy
11U-)y
Q)-1U1M
bU1]1Z
-U2-z1
]Q]y11
1y1---M
---1--)--1-,
Q----M
>_ ^b:
> >bbf
:b >:
:^bbf:>b ::>
6:^>:^:^::^:9;V:^:
::^2b:^::^
2:2^:
V1V:2
121V11V9:
:^ :^:_::^::_::^:V:
U22U2::VY:^2^
2^:_2:V:^:V9^:^1
2V:^:
V: >
-V11U1-V121
21U12U-^2
U111--1
U2-2--1-
-.)-1
2V2^22
2V2V22
2V^^ b
1V1M2-1
-*--.
-21:V:
b^1^^
V2U::
V1^2:
V:2V212>2
^2:221V1:
1-V1)
^^^:2Vb^:
:b^c
W-2U11
1212U2
1V2-1U
2:^b :2
V211-12R
^2U21*111-
111 b
Q212121
:1V1211V
11--1
U-V1V:
::^^^::
;b::^2^b
)212V
b b
b
:V^ ^ b
V:2^ :
Z ^b^
:-2U2^Z
V2^12V
^2^2111
1Q:1-21
211V1)1
1yUU,
:V2U2
-11*U
12.Y:
Q)--)U
1Q111Q11)
)^22^:
UU1,--U
-]Q----1x---
2^_^V
11^2Y1
1Y2^21^
2V:V:
,M-Q-
%--Q)-$-L
---M,Q
::2V12U
22V21
)-M--1-
-QU-yU
])Q1---
1)1M-1---
$-1MM,Q-Vy
UU111--1--
Q-Q1-
UyyVyUy
1-Q)Q
11)--
-M2V^
QQ1--
Q$-yU
V2-22^2
U21V1
22U21V:
:11^1
:V:2^YV:2^
:VY2U2V
21V1V1:V11-21U-2
:2YV-2
:2Y^:
M1U)Q)1
1V12V
-2-1*2
zV_-)V
:^ZU-2
U.Q;U
U2V1V2V
^::W2^:
1--%--1
Y.9V:
2V^^^
1V2U:
yVU---
L-Q)Q-L
1:1212
V:VV212V2V
Uy1z1
bVaV22
)u.2-2
21:^2
1V b%
1M-1
----u
2Y-1^
2>^:V:b:V
-Q)--M1
1)Q)Q
Q11)yUU
uUu--
uT-Uy
U-Qxy)
-M-PU
111-112
U109x
1M1Q2
,UUUQ]
6y1-
:222V2
U1U1-0y(
U1(QUM1)Q-
-z1--111z1.11-9V11
Q1111]
z121--V
z)--MUy
2U1U-y
U--y-]
U-y-)Q)1--,)y1y
^^^22
11VU11Q
22V1:
-yUu---11y
:]:9 jb
V::Y]
:_:^22V
>2^2V
^::U2-
212^:2
2^:22
^^ c
:V;V:^::V:^:W^^c
:1U:9
Q)I-q]
2-::^
--1)Q
y-M1Q
^^Z222
]zUU1yy
y11QU-
1yZu:
U1uUy
-U1U
U--1y
yVUy1
2--1M
p640-1
ftsTitleOverride
Symbolism, Aestheticism and Modernism (page 1)
ftsTitle
A gathering of Symbolist writers, including Verlaine and Rimbaud (seated on far left), as painted by Henri Fantin-Latour.
Symbolism, Aestheticism and Modernism (1 of 3)
These closely related movements in 19th- and early 20th-century European literature have their roots in French poetry. They shared a belief in the absolute value of art, reinforced by various forms of contempt for the everyday world, and especially for people who served its interests.
There resulted a rift between writers and the public at large, who were seen as 'bourgeois' in a disparaging sense - i.e.
they were thought of as small-minded and materialistic.
Artists lived for their art alone, sometimes flaunting their difference from the rest of society by affected or deliberately shocking behavior.
This cult of art differed from the idealization of art by the Romantics (some still alive, such as Hugo), because it was no longer concerned with the good of society or humanity. Art's long-standing association with moral and religious values was rejected as these were felt to have degenerated into cheap notions of respectability and progress. 'Art for art's sake' was the cry of such poets as Thuophile Gautier (1811-72), whose early extravagant Romanticism was to be replaced by a preoccupation with poetic form. Music became the most admired of all the arts because it was pure - that is, it did not reflect banal reality, but transcended it altogether.
The beauty of evil
One of the first Symbolists and Aesthetes was Charles Baudelaire (1821-67). He is seen by some as the father of Modernism, though no label really describes him adequately. He is amongst the greatest of all French poets. Rebel son of a respectable family, his lifestyle included drugs, drink, a colored mistress, prosecution by the state for immorality in his poetry, and affliction with syphilis which eventually killed him. Yet Baudelaire found his inspiration in this misery; he transformed it into a profound and potent symbol of the wretchedness inherent in the human condition, which most people hypocritically close their eyes to. Hypocrisy and 'ennui' (a heightened form of boredom, in which he saw a revelation of man's desperate state) are two of his major themes, and so also, in poignant contrast to them, are the hopes and longings inspired by love and beauty. Out of the conflict between human degradation and human aspiration, death and dreams, Baudelaire composed poems of tragic intensity. They are, as he tells us in the title of his only volume of verse poems (he also wrote 'poems in prose'), 'the flowers of evil' (Les Fleurs du mal; 1857).
Pure poetry
Stuphane Mallarmu (1842-98) marks a further step in the development of Modernism, beyond personal tragedies and scandals, indeed beyond ordinary experience altogether, towards pure intellectual preoccupation with words - and also towards the kind of obscurity and difficulty that characterizes much modern art. He sought an ideal that he called 'the pure idea' - an essence of things that can only be grasped when the reader is prevented from reading words as descriptions of real things and situations; thus it is hard to relate the language of his poems to any personal perspective or familiar way of thinking.
This elimination of the lyrical 'I', and more generally of the author's presence as a guide for the reader, has since become a further characteristic of modern styles of writing. It creates the possibility of experimenting with radically different ways of organizing a text. The poems and poetic prose of Arthur Rimbaud (1854-91) are an example of what can be done with words and images when personal control is abandoned. Violently antipathetic to any form of authority, Rimbaud latterly adopted a vagabond lifestyle that took him to Abyssinia and a brief career in gun-running. His demonic influence almost awakened a modern genius in his lover Paul Verlaine (1844-96), who reverted, however, to conventional and sometimes maudlin moods of personal sentiment.
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* DADA AND SURREALISM
* ROMANTICISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATRE
* MODERN DRAMA IN BRITAIN AND THE USA
* MODERN POETRY
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
TTPxP
,ptPtp
P($PL
$,PPL$
tTP(xTx,P(
PtTtTx
tPTt]p
PPLt(P
Ltx,xT
(,PL,P,
L,Lt,
tLtpt
t(tLx
(tPyt,x,
L,PT,
TtxPxPL
TP,T,
x,p,t
xtTtyT
TTtxTy
T-L,t
TtxtLTtTtx
,x,pP
,t(PPp,
,(xPxT
t(,PL
P,(tT,L,P,
L,P(TP(
P,x,xT
,xUxPLP(x
P,LPL
P,L,(,tx
(PL,$
,x-xt
xPxPL
x-P(tp
tLtpPP
P(P(TPxt,
,LPttptTPx
x,x,xx
Tt,L,x,PPL
PLx0x
txtTt,
txTtT,xy
tLTPpP
(P,(,(
PLt(x,
p,P(TPt,x
PTx,xPx
PPpPx
LPtLPP
t,TPPLPLTt
T$xtPL
P$,,L
PTx,x
,pPpt
PxPL0,tP
P(xtT
TtPTt
$(t,L,
tPpttP
0t,P(t
,,$PT
$PP(P
H,(tPLP
tpPP(t(P
PpPpP
P(tPPLt
(,tLt,tLPL
P,P(,PTP
P(,P$Pp
,L,L,LPPLP
Lt(tPP(P
,,L,t(
PPtxPL,p
(t]xL
PH,t(xPL,L
t(xPL
Pt(P,PPL,P
ttPLP
t,LPt
p,ttP
PTtLP
,tQLPT
,PPx,($
LP(tT
PTPT-
t(Px,
PT$P,(t
,,P1t
PLPxx
ttTtT
,T,T,
,,L0t0
LTtPL
$,(PP
tTPTP
xPpPxt(P
$,0P,p
(T,p0P
PL,,T
,L,,P
H,p,x
,P0,L,
(xPt(t
P0tT,(P
pxx,PP
,t(P,L,
,(TT,P(
P(xT7
PLPtP
,M,,PT,%
x,x,P(
tTTPL0,L
TPTP(T,.
,pTt0t(tP
,T,01P(,
P(U,P,(PP
P,t(PPL,PT
(,L,P(T
PtpPx,
tTTxPT,(P
(x-P(P,1P(
,0P(0P,
x,x,(P
1P0,T,L0P
T,x0tT
P(T,T,x,t
$PpPt
P(,P0UQL
0PU,,LP1Pt
x-P,L0,x
P,(P0
x-T,,
Pxy,P
0P0yPP
TU,T1PTP)T
xP0,P,
TUTTt0t0tx
P,ptPt
P0P(T-(
x01y,xTUP
U,,TP
pTTP0t,(
PLxxPpT
P0t0xP0xUP
T0xUU,
0yTtLx,x0P
x-0TPUT0t1
,t,t,
PTx,x,TTU,
L,P(P
(,T,0L
,y,x,xP0t,
1P,P(
(P,0PT1P,
TTPTx,yt0y
TUPyx,
x,0tUx
10P(P
,xPyTy0
,xTxyP
PL0$t
xUtxU
TxTyT
xyxUtxUxyT
y,xTy,y
xUPTy
yUxTt
(U,P(U,
P(,Q0P
x0xt1x
UxTu]
1T0,0
1,T,L1
P0P0P1P
$,P,T
ty]tUx
,tTt0P0
T,0P,
0,,T,
,PLxT
0yx1xyT
Q0P(T,1P
(1,Q0y
,L0P(
TxxTTPU,L0
yxTyxTyxTx
P,0,L,
P(T,,L
,0,LP0,xTx
TxTPTx,x,
xTy]xx]
UxyTx
,P,L,P,P(
(1P(0P
P(T0PTP0t0
tx0x,Tt,0t
P,0P1,
0P00P,U0
LTPx,TPx
PT0tT
UxPxxTyTyx
,L,P(
(,-,,
L,T-P
,Lx,T,0x,
0xxTx,xxTt
]yyPxxyTx
T0P(P(,0P
P0Q0P(
P,,xTx,P(x
tTtxxTPPT,
TxUyTyP
L,(0-,
,T-L-
TPTxTtTx,P
,x,t0
UxUyx
,p,tx,$
,L,P,(x
P(,L,
,P(t,L$
P(,U,
T,P(PTT
P,T00,L0
L,P(,
$,P(,P,L
,P,p,
t,pP,p,P
TQ,(P
,p0T,,P(,P
Tx,x,
TP,(T,
tPx,L$(t,
,-(P,
P(T-0
PTP(,L0
0xTyTxTy
$,P(,L
,T,P(,P(0P
x]yt]x
p,(0P(y,p,
$,L,P(
,p,L,
PL,L0
,LPL,L,
,L,,T,PL,P
0tT,p,,L
t(PtTt
xxUxP
,L,,LPP(,
,P$,P(
yxTxTxTty\
t,L,L
,t$,P($,
LPLP(P
P,LPp,
PL,,pPtpPt
t0t(t
L,L,P
P,PLtxPPLt
TxTxTxPUP
p,,pPtT
PLPtpPt
L,0P0t(
,,L,P(t
(t(PL,p
PptTP(
TUxyT
L,TPt0,
pPL,x,L,x(
(tt,xtTPPx
TxUPTyP
t(P,$P
,,L,L
Px,T,(,P,(
t,LPt
TL,T,L,(P,
L,$tPxPpPx
P,L,(tTtL
(t(PTx
t,PTP,TPPL
tPttP
TxTtTx
$,$,LPL
t(T,,TTPp1
P(T,p,,
t(PLP
PP0,p
,TPLT
y,L0$
,L,,P(t(tP
t,pTt
P(t(,x,L,,
L,x,p
P,L,p,
,t,LPPLt
x,,x,0t0uL
Tt(T,0,P,P
,pPTt
PL,0P(t
1t(t(P(,
PpxtT
$T,T,PTPL
TPPTP0P,P(
tTP(t,
,PPLP
L,0TPL1t,L
T,xTPP
P,(PLt
TPPTP,p,TP
xPp,tTt
PLTt0$
P(,P(P
tUTTPTx,
x,L,p,L,
tPL,L
0P(,t(Pt
,L,(tp
xPL,PTP,t0
0x,xx,
PLP,p
PtxPt
P,pxPx
x0t0PPT(,P
TP$,L,
,t(ttPx
PTtx,L,
xP(t0t0x,,
,$PPTt,xPx
TPUt(P(T,L
Px0xxTx
PLtPt
0xTPLPT
PTt(PT
LP(t($
TtxTx0x
PLt,p
,xTxTTPx-P
0x,TP0PLP,
P,(,tp
PLx,ytTxx
Tx,px,
PPLxPp
PTPTt
L,,LTxP
tTxPxxP
txPx,x,,x
,p0P,
PUxPxUxPx
uxx,p,xt)
L,PpP
PP(P,
TtTtx
PTyPTxTxPT
L,pPxPt
,xTxPxT
tTtTPT
,0P,LT
ytTxx,yPxT
x1T,yx,x,0
L,,pP
P(P,$t
PLt0x0tP
PxxTPPT1t
PPU,x0,xTP
,LPxPT,
TxP1x
x0xxPx0
xUPTtPtTPT
$,,LPtLt,L
,(tLT,(
txPtLPt
xTTx0T
0tx,x
,TP,x,
$0xTU
TtTPx
UxPTTQTt1
TUx0x,MTx,
tLt,tx
L,L,t
Lt,(,,p
0PTPLt
xtpPpTt
P0t0x
0xPx0xPxxT
P0,x,p0
tTx,x0tx
u0QTP
x,xPT,P(P
yPp,pPx(
LPtLPt
xTPTtpT
TxtUtTx
TT,P(
xxTt0x,M\t
Ux\yT
xTt0uxU
txxTPy0x,L
,P,PP,,P,
tLtPxPpP
,PTt(
xxUxTtT
Tt0xPx,xTP
xPtPy
xTxTxTxUxP
y,yTty,x,
PLt(t
$t,t(
xtTxP
$,(PTt
y0tUP
0tL0x,T,TT
p0yxyxT
txxyTTPxxU
TxPu0L
PP0P0Tt
LPP,p
,T,pTT
0xTxPy
$PTPTt\x
,0T,0P
tPxTxTxTPT
TtTtTt1T0P
(xP(x
LPLPp
PxxTPx
PTxt(
1,p,x
tTx,xTxUxy
P(Px,
y,UTy
x,xtTx,
TPTxP
P(tPp
PTxTx
TPTxyTT
$,P(P(
ttTt(
TPt,x
TPTxxt,tx,
x,(t0TPP
TTxPT
PPLt,t(
P(P,,
xTtTx
PTx,P(
$,P(P
PTPLtTtp
T,xt0x
PtLt0t
PUTxU
xxTu0txx
,x0t0PT0x
yTxyTx
0xx1xx-x0t
$,L,$
PtPtP
PTP,t,
t(ttp,,LPP
xtPpT
P]PTu
0xxTxP1PTx
TxxTt0xTyT
TTx,xt0
yTyUxTyTP
xPyxPxPx
yTtTxyTy
yxTxuTttxP
tT,Pp
tTxPx,xTx
PP$L,t
UxTxT
0,,0,P
TxPTT,
P0P,,xT
,xPxt
xyTxtTxyxU
xxTxU
xxtTtTxx,x
Ttx0x,
(PPxtp
0PPLtT
PTPTx0
Txx,x0
t,PTtxTxTy
TPTxP
P,L0t0x
xUxyTtyTtT
xxTxTyTP
xTyTxyT
x]xyTxUTt,
,P(PLtT
tTtP,xTx,
(P(PL
TxTtU
yTUPxt
tUxtT
p0t0P
xTT,L
TyxTxTx
xTtxUxt
xUxxyxTt
xTTUtxTx
(x,p,
TxxUxxP
xTtTx
-x0,x
xUxxtTxx
TxyTxxTxxU
TyTxTTPTx
yTytx,y
,P(,P0
$P(tPt
(t,ptLPP
xPtTPx,TPx
TP0t0x
x1xTP
Txx0u0
1,x0PTL,
xxTxTy
UxxTtTxtTt
xUxTtTtyTx
yTyyTyTT
xPxyt
Px,pt
x,$,,xTPP
TxTtUtyTx-
xTx0Ptx
L,0TP
TxxyTyTt
xPxUxtTxy
TxxTyxTxxP
0xUxT,xUP
x0xtxx,P(,
P(P,t
$,$P0PxP
,L$P,
$,(tT
,tTP\tTxt0
]xy\x,xUTx
TxtxTU
ty\x,x
UTxTxtT
PxPxTTx,xU
xx0yTxyTPT
QxTyx0
TxxTx
tTxTx
xxTQx
xxTyxxP
tUxTxxU
xPyxTyx0tx
Tx,pTPTu0x
P(,txPp
,L,t,
tTxTP
yTxxT
yTxTyTxTx
TxTyt0yxTy
PPUPTx,y
,x0t0tTP(
PpT|T
,tHxPtTt
,txPp
xPx,p,P
0P(y,
P0,T,xTxxP
xu0tT
,T,xT
TyxUx
PxtUxx
xTxTtxxPyx
TxTxy0
PTP,x,xTtx
PLxPx
LPxtTtPxPL
P(0P0x
(T,TxTP
yxTxTy
1tTTyT
xUTT-xxUtT
TxUPUxP
TUTyTx0t
,LTPPL,L,P
100P(T,tTU
xPxTx0
Px,xx
0P00PT
xTtTxx
UxTxxPx
xyxTxx0
xUyxUPxtTx
PTLTxtTxtL
x,P0,T0P,T
xxTyxUxP
0xTx,xxPxT
xTy,t,
UP0t0PTxPL
,P,P0
L0T,P
yxPx0
xTP,L
Tx,x,
xxTxx
PtxTytT
xTx0xxUx,
p0P,xTx0tx
0tTPTT
PTT,x,
TTP,T,0
x,xUxtT
UxTx,tyxPx
xyTxUx
TxTxTxtUPT
PxPyPT,x,x
,0TuTPy0
PTt0P
,t0Pp,xP
0,x,(T
TPxTP
0u,yPPTxTx
Txx0xxTxTx
UPTtx
UTTtxUxtT
xyUxt0xTPP
TPtL0PTPx0
t(,,T
LPptt0
x,xx0
t(xPT
PtTPx,x,TT
yTy,xyTx,y
xxTxTx0tT
x0TTt,p,t0
xPxxt0xPUP
PTT,L0P(
QPTx,xxP
TyTUTtxU
0P0,L
T,L,PLx
,P,TT
xxTxTUxT
u\txUxUx,t
TPTT,xTQTx
PTTt0TPTTP
P(xxTxTxtT
P(,,L
,(P0P(0t(
(T,TPTP
yTxTtTxTxy
PxTxxT
0x0t0x,MT0
T,xPTx,
x0xTUt,
,xx,xTPU
P,L,TQx
TxtxTtxPxT
,xUxT
TPx,x0t0PM
0xTy,x,xTP
xUxtTxx
Txx0x
x-x-LTPTTP
PtyTtTP0t
,P(P,
0txTxxTt1
,L0xT
TtxT0xPxPu
xPPUPTx,TQ
0,x0xT,t0x
t,xTxUtxTy
Tyx0x
TxTx0t(xPT
txTx,tx0x,
TxxyPxyTPT
xTxtyxxTxT
xyTPt,P-xU
TTytTTPy,x
UPP(P(
,xTxxTyxUx
tTxTtUtxx,
xyPLTxTt0x
x,xx1P
,xUxxPxxUx
PPLUPTPTTP
yxTu,(xTP
txtUx,xUx
TPTt0xy
TxxTxUx
,xxUy,t
TTPx,yTP,x
TPU00PTx,(
P,(P,
xTxUPUx0yP
,L,(TPTTxt
TtxPPTtTty
,xy0xxTt1P
,TTy,x0xPx
Pxty0tP
(T,PT
T,xTx
y0xPy
yTxy0
,TPxPxTyTt
yx,xxTyxTt
xTTPx,P
Txt0tTTPTP
P(0y-
TxyPUT
xPTPxtTxxT
xTxxTxxPty
ULT,qx0
t0tTP,yxTt
,x,L,
xTxTx
$0t(T,xx,
xx0xx,xTxx
PxxTxPxP,P
,PPUPxx,xT
PTPTtT
T,xTx
,pPLtLPPL,
PL,tTtTxTt
TPx,xUxxUx
,LT,x0yTT1
t1Tt,x,x,q
T,0T,
L0,T,
tLtPx
ttLt,L,(PL
tP(P,L,P(P
,LxTxtUxP0
PP(T,x,xPT
TP(x,xTTPx
TP,LT,
L,P,P(
,L,TT,
pPtLtPLH,L
0xTtTxt0PT
PLt0x,TPx,
x(t(PTx,
p,xTxt0t(
P,,P0
(x0Qx,t,xP
,T,T,
Uxx,xx
pxTT,tTPL0
,x0xPx,xTt
0x,TPP(P
T,T,p
t0xTTP
,pPpPpt
PTtx-0L,,t
LPt(TPT,xT
PQpTPT
xPxPxPLPpt
PPLtPxtLtp
t,pTPTx
,x,,L0,T,x
0t(PTL,x0t
,x0ttU
(t,pt(PtPp
,pt,p,PtpP
t(t(t
,p,tTt0P
x,LPT,x
(P,p0
TTxPL,0P
Lx,LP
L,P0x
0P,L0
tt(tPPptp,
PPpPtpxPt
P,t(tt
,xttP
,t(xPx0t,T
P0,p,x,T
Tx0xP0x,t
(t0tT
Utx\t
T0x0y
tLtxtLt,tL
PPL,P(tPLP
PLttLtLt,L
t(tLtpP
tPLPxtTP
(x,,(x,x,x
0xPP(t1P,L
T,0P0P0
0tLtPtLtLt
,pPtLtLttp
PPLtPL
PtpPt
Ppt,PTt0t0
P(P(P(t0PT
xtx,p0xPTU
0P(PTP(
ptPLtt,ptP
,pxPtp
PLxPP(T
TPTP0t0PLT
-x1,Tt,L0t
PPL,t(,0
Txxyx
tTt(x
tTtPpPptLt
Ltp,,L0P
,0P(,x,TPT
xPxTy
L,(xP
T,L,t0,T
(P,(P,,x,0
0,P(T
t\yTT
t,ptLPPL,t
PPx,t(,P,0
P0t0P0,TTP
(P(T0,x
$,L,PPp
,t(P,(,tLt
pPt(,L0,
T,(P,x,x,,
t(TPP(,P(P
TUPx-x
(,P(,L,
(,,P0
,t(tp,t,
(t,p,,pPP
TP,pP
Ptp,PTPL0,
t(,x,,
x,TPTPL
,P0Pp
P(0PTx
($,P$
,(P$,L,L,H
TP(,L,
tTyTUt
,(P,T
P(PTP
,T,P(0P,
x0,L,0
P(PPp,t,(,
PpPttL
,,L,(,P
UxPxU
(P,P,L,T,
L,T,,T,L
ttLt(
,L,L,
t(tLt
Pp,,L,
p,x,P(
0xUxx
TP0,L0t
P,,x,
x0,P(x,0x
TPt(tpPpPt
LPttLtL
\xxtTtx
TxPxx0
TtT,L,L
x,0,(
L0P,P0,
T,,(T,
Qxt]xT
(P(P0
(P,t(tP
L,ptL
PLPtL
p,tL,,L
,P,t0
,PTP,L,TP
P,T,(P(
t9,L-T
(T,00,U
xPLPx
TyPx,x,
0xTxTt0P0x
(TP,L
x,P0t(
,P(P,
TTPTxx
xx0xTP
xx0tx0t
(t0,L
t,x,T
T,P0P(
0Pp]x
tTyx0
tLtt,T,
tTtxxP
,xTPx
TP0,P(P
T,(PPT
,x0P0PT,x
,T1P0
T,T,L
$,ptPL,
xTPxTy
Tx,0$,L0PP
(P0P0P(P
(P0P(,
T,(P,
LTPPL,
y0P0x,P]
0xxTxU
Pp,tL
LP(P,
,(P,(
,P0x,
(tPxtLP
xUPxT
\x,P,(P(
(0P,T,
P(,PT
0t0TPT,t0
,yTxt
T,U,0,
t,ptT
,L,t,p
(P,p,
t(x,LPL0,T
(T,Lx,
P(,x,0P
xTP,UT
TPUtT
tLtTxP
$,P(PP
,0t(P
tTtpt
yxTxt
Tx0tPxPx,x
,t0PPL,(
tTPTT,L
0,L0P
(P,tTttTP(
PTPpTT0P0P
P0xTTPL
Tyxx1
P,$,P(
$(P(,,L
0xTxy
x,,LP
L,tx,,p0P
t0P,p,x,T
xPxUT,0t0P
TxT,txPxTx
Ttxx,
TPx1PTx]t
0xyTxy
L,PTP(P
,P0,P
t0,p0x,
L,PTP(
x,PTxP(TT
x]x0x1
T,,L,P
,L,T,(
TPPLPL
,,LPL,
,L,TTt(x
x,L,T,
T,x,L
TP0TxTx
txTyTyx
t(x,P
t(t,LP
T,x0,Px,p,
P0x,x,
(x,(T,T,
TxPPL,
TT00,x,T0t
UyPPx
t(tL,
PpP,LP
T,Tx,tTP
tLTx,P(xxt
(,x,L,P0P
T,,P,(0
0xP(T0,,
L,TP(0P
TtLtL
t,L,P,L
P(,P(,
$,PpP
PTxPTP
P(0P,(
0PPTT,L0PT
P0tL0P0P,
x0Px,0
(T,P0,P0
t1xUxt
t(,tL
L,L,P,L
x,P(T,,
L,,L,,p,pP
x,xPLt
xxtTt,x,tx
,xTtxP
L0T,TP
,L,T,L
L,LTP(
TPTT,
00,P(PTxTP
PT0TP0UPT,
,x,xT
xxTx0
,L,0P
LPt(,,
(,P(P(P0t,
P(t,Lt,
,xTtP
,L,x,P,
L,TT,,L
x,xx,xxUxy
TyPPU
tLtPLt
P$P$(P,
LPtpx,
0xTxT
TxTPLP0P,(
PTtTTt
L,(PL
PLxPLPTLP,
,$PPL
xPxPxP
tTxxtyT
T,x0P
Tt(t(
L,,$,L,PL
$,LPPpt
T,,(P
x,xT00P
LP0yTT
]LU0x
P(P,(P
,PLtP,P
,,pTPTtp
t,p,P
UxTtTxPx
Pt0P,T,,0,
T0,,P(
(PTTP
x,L0P
0P0P0,TP0P
xPt1tT
(ttPp
t(PPpP
$,L,t,L,P,
,pPL,
xPxTT0
xx,,L,,L
T0P1,
1xTyxU
t(tLtt
,p,tTPT
t(PLttP
PP(,L,t
,t,$,L
x0xx,xP
UxTxtT
T,P0,x
,L,x0x
(T,xP,T
0x,T,x,x
Tyxxy
Ty0x0
PttLt
,p,pPtptPt
0xyTt
,0T,T
T,LxTx0P,
(PTP0
P(,0P0
x,0t,x(0x0
UT]t0y
TxUTx,U
t,pPp
LPxPP(tLtp
$,(P(
x,yPPTxxtT
\yt0P
0,LP,x0x,t
,LTP,L0xt,
P0,T,
0tTxUx
xxPPU
,P(PL
tt(t,x
PxTxT
x,(x,P
,TP0,x,
P(PT,L
,0P,T(0,T0
PLTPT0PP0x
,T10P
(PTty
tyTTU
xPyPxxy
$PP$P($
,,t(t,pPxt
tTxU,
xTtTxtTP0T
P(PP0P00
xP(P,
T,(T,x
x]xxT
P(P$TP
,LP(,t
LPL,,pPt
$,P($
TPTxT
,P(P,L
yTUPT
,P(,,T
,LP,L,Pp,x
0xuTtTx
xTxPxTt0
t(P0P,T,
QT0Uxx
,($,(,
P,pPtptPx
ttPpPt
ptLPP
Tx,txT
Tt(0P
,0L,x,P0T
t0T,(
P(0P0
PpPPL
xPtTPt
,P(P,
LPLPPLtLt
TtPL,P(P
,L,,LPtT
L,T(P
TP0P(P,(P0
,LxP(P
P,L,T
PpPtxP
(P,(P
(,PLPt
(PPL,t
,tT,x
TTxx,xTtPT
P(P,,
LPT,P
1P0TPtxxT
xyxyTy
xyy0yT0
$,tL,pPLP,
PLPtP
TtxTtP
tUxy,xUPyT
x,(P,Lx
P0L,P
(T0t0x
UTUx1x,x]x
TtPPp
,,LPt,
P(,p,p
,xTyxTPL
xTxTx
TPTtP]
L,LPLP
tx,txP
TxtTPTPPt
tTxxU,
xt,tTxx,xT
xx,px
xPx,xTxtx
TxyTxUxTPT
P0P0xUxT0
PUt,xTt0
UxTyxTtTQ\
Ptt,p
pPp,P
TPTtPy
T,L\xxTtPT
QTtPtTt0xT
yTxTy
-xt0xx,x
,t0x]x
,x0TT
,p,tpT
,,L,pxP
TxTPTxtU
TxTPTx
tTTtUTtPUP
yTT,yUP
Tx0yT
PTxUtTTPxU
x1yTx,
TxP0tUxT
TPxUxPT
,xTyTP
LttpP
L,(tPptT
xPTTt]xTP
yxPTtx,xx
tTx\y
TTQxTx
T,PTx
Ux\xTxTxU
xTtt0xPxU
]TTtTx,
xt,pP
xPPpP
TtTxxTxTxT
,xTPTT
0PPUPTTx
t0xUxUxTyx
TxyTt
xx-yx,y
xTyxyt
x]P01
L,tLtPpP
xPpPPL
(tLtt
xPxtt
TPTx0
Tyt,x,
,xPyUPtP
xTPLtTx,1
yTxxPx,
TPTPTyT
t0xTxxUxUx
tPTxTy0t0
TPxyxUx
y0t\txT
TxyTt
uTxTtxTx
t0y,yTT
xTx,xUt1
Pp,t(P
xTx0tT
PxxPTt
Tt,xU
PxyTPTxPxT
UPx]xPx
tTUTx
PUTyTT,t0
xxUyT
tLPPptt(tL
,pt,H
TxTtx
xTxtT
tTxxUty
,xyxtPx
x,xt]xTU
xy\yTP
PLPL,
PTPTt0
,xtTxPxTP
TtTttxTxTx
TUPTyyxTx
xxTx,yTxx,
UTxTty,x
-xyTUPx
]xyTx,
t0xx,
PptPxlP
PTTxT
xtTyxt
]xTxPTx,xt
xTxt,PTxPx
0tTtTyP
TyTyxT0xUP
Tty,xUP,tT
x0xTxt\PtT
x,tTx
xyTP1xU
xp,,p
,xtTt
TtTtTP
xTxTyTx
TyTyTQ0
T0TxTxy
xUxTyx
xTx-x
TxtTyx
x,UxUy
TxyTQ0
tptPtP
TyTxTP
xx,PT
,xx0tTxT
,TyTyxx
TxtxP
x,tTUtx
TyTxUxT
yPxTT
xTxxTt
-xTyTx
,PPxt(tT
L,PLP
t0PTPTx
PTxUxTtTxP
TtTx0
xtyTy
TxTxUxxUxP
TxTUx]xyx]
xTxTxT
1tTyTU
,UTTxyUxTy
0xxTT
LtpPp
(,PP(PLP(
TxtTxPT,
Tt,tT
PTPtTxt0x0
tx9PxT
UTy\tT,
x,xyUx
xUxTPt0
tTxxTxt0
TtxPLTxt
,TyPxPxy
xxTxtTx,
y,xxTxxT
xtTx,tT
uTyTxxTxx
,xt(1PTxT
TyxTx1
TxPTx
PtTTPxxT
xTxyTy
TPyTtT
xyPxyxTtyT
PxtUxTyT
0TTtT
t0y0tx,t,P
$T,P(
PxtPx
PTxPxTPT
TPT,T
,xxPxT
TxTxT
UxxTQ,xTy,
xTPTTt
yx,TTPp\
xx,xTP
L,P(P
TPLtx,tTPP
,pPTP
xtTx1xx,
0tTyxT
,y,x1tTxP1
tTxUxPx,
tTxPyP
x,tTx,xTyP
yPLTxT
,LUx0PxTx
1TTx,TxxTx
TxTx,t0,x,
xTx,x,x,xT
xPTPTx
x\xtTx
xTxTyTPP
t0t1xx,
,TQL0x,L
x,TPyx0
tTPTP
tLtLt(
0txPx,xP
LTPPT
t,x,L,xt,P
,xt,L,T,
,PTx0,xTx0
tTTP0t
PPxPPx
t0t(xPTTPU
x,x0P
TPTt0PTT,x
UxTP1,x
tLttLt
xTPP0x,x,P
0x0TxT
,pTxtxx
TxT,xt
0xPxP
Tt0PTP0
0TTPTx1TPL
0y,t0
Lt(,p
L,P,P(P,t
0x$PTP0P,L
P,L0P,P
tLttPttP
PpTt(P
PTpTPP
tTtLPT
PTPPxP
,PLtxPpt
pPxtPx
tLPPLP
xt,pP
tpPxtPpPx
PxPtpP
P,pPtLTt
t(tTt(x
pxPPLtPptT
PpP,tL0tP
LPt(txPxt
tt(xt(
PxPLP
tLtPxtLt
LPP(Pt(
tpPx,
,p,,pPxt
(PpPTtTtLP
tt(PT
,(tLtpt(P
xPPLtLPtt
PpPptt
LPTtp,tTtt
tTttL
T$PpTt(
t(ttL
,ttLtLt
PpPx,(
t,t$,
PtTtpPp
PL,,x
tpPt,p
ptLx,
,t(,P
PPpTtLP
pTt(tP
P,pPx
t(tPp
PTtPp,t
txPxP(
$tpTtPp
,tTt,L
PtTtTt
PxtPpPpPt
,xt,pt
Pxt(t,,
tPx,p,L
PxPp,p
pxtLtt,
PpxPt
,t(t(t
LPtLPLP
xPTPPLP
PpPtL
xPpt,
,$tLxPPL
,pPpTt
PP(PxP
tLtPP
TttLx
Lx,pt
pP,pttpPxP
PTtLxP
tTtPLP
xPtLxP
p640-2
ftsTitleOverride
Symbolism, Aestheticism and Modernism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Marcel Proust's Remembrance of Things Past is regarded as one of the greatest novels ever written and had a profound influence on modern writing.
Symbolism, Aestheticism and Modernism (2 of 3)
Paris
With the dawn of the new century, Symbolism (and artistic experimentation generally) flourished in many countries. To mention only a few names, there was in Russia the poet Alexander Blok (1880-1921); in Italy the poet Filippo Marinetti (1876-1944); and in Germany the poet Stefan George (1868-1933). However, the true capital of the arts in Europe at this time was Paris.
Painters, musicians and writers from all over Europe and America were attracted there by the intellectual excitement and freedom from convention. New groups, styles and ideas flourished, and to be avant garde was everything. Whether in painting, sculpture, music or any of the genres of literature, there was a great eagerness amongst this generation to break out of conventional ways of using the medium itself. A shared sense of being revolutionary and experimental drew together artists from different fields - notably, the French playwright Jean Cocteau (1889-1963), the ballet impresario Diaghilev, and the composer Stravinsky. After knowing Picasso, the French poet Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918) experimented with Cubist principles and produced early examples of concrete poetry. Movements such as Dada and Surrealism, which explored distorted, irrational, nonsensical effects, expressed themselves equally in writing, theatrical performance and painting (as did the politically more progressive Futurist movements in Italy and Russia).
A number of philosophical influences, including psychoanalysis, Marxism, and Nietzsche, contributed to the suspicion that society's conventional view of the world, - indeed civilization itself - was a mere facade, resting on misconception and illusion. The role of art, it was thought, should not be to reproduce and support such falsehood, but rather to expose it. This suspicion was intensified by the carnage of World War I and the virtual collapse of the old social order in Europe.
Dissimilar styles of Modernism
To understand the connection between the diverse literary talents of this period, it is necessary to consider this background of cultural and social crisis. For instance, Jules Laforgue (1860-87), an influential poet in the history of Modernism, is notable for his use of free verse (unrhymed verse without any regular rhythm), free association of ideas, glimpses of urban landscapes, snatches of popular songs, everyday speech, and philosophic and technical terms. Paul Valury (1871-1945), on the other hand, a no less important poet, wrote poems that are classically controlled in their form, thought and imagery. What Valury wanted to explore in this more formal style were the workings of consciousness in sharp contrast with the physical vitality of existence. It was a comparable sense of contrast between what the mind thinks and the actual reality of existence that prompted Laforgue to keep shifting focus and tone of voice.
This contrast became, in fact, a central theme of Modernist literature, and there turned out to be many ways of responding to it. When Ezra Pound (1885-1972) advised his fellow American poet T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) to introduce still more fragmentation and shifts of tone and reference into The Waste Land (1922), they were following Laforgue's style of Modernism. This Modernist masterpiece evokes the sterility of modern civilization by means of a kaleidoscopic use of echoes and allusions - to myths and religions, to other poetry (including Shakespeare, Wagner, popular songs and nursery rhymes), and to symbolic landscapes and characters. Eliot developed this technique further - and better, many believe - in Four Quartets (1943), a series of religious meditations on time and eternity. Here the shifts in tone, rhythm, theme and reference are less harsh and more profound. By contrast, the great Irish poet W.B. Yeats rather resembles Valury in the formal meters, stanzas, syntax and figures of speech of his poems, in which he depicts the interaction of intellect and body, soul and self, in love and art and history.
Modernist writers (from left to right): James Joyce, Ezra Pound and Ford Maddox Ford (1873-1939) with John Quinn in Paris in 1924. After writing his masterpiece, The Good Soldier (1915), Ford became editor of the Paris-based Transatlantic Review, in which he expressed his appreciation for the originality of the works of Joyce and Pound and many others.
Symbolism, Aestheticism and Modernism (3 of 3)
The Modernist novel
There were no English-born Symbolists, Aesthetes, or Modernists of genius before Virginia Woolf. Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909) - an admirer of Baudelaire - posed as one, but his lush fantasies of beautiful living lacked any contact (let alone contrast) with reality. Walter Pater (1839-94) and other members of the Aesthetic Movement in England theorized academically about art; even Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), whose understanding of the psychological dangers in Aestheticism can be seen in his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), tended to escape into sheer wit. The hero of this quite conventionally written novel is modeled on the character of Des Esseintes in Joris-Karl Huysmans's (1848-1907) Against Nature (1884) - a much more memorable prototype of the decadent Aesthete, who reads Mallarmu.
Modernism in English-language fiction begins in fact with the work of the Irishman James Joyce (1882-1941). He refined a gift for realism in his early short stories, Dubliners (1914), condensing descriptions and events into scenes of poetic and symbolic power. He also explored interior point of view in the autobiographical Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1914-15). The first great Modernist novel is Joyce's Ulysses (1922), which - like Modernist poetry - contains many different shifts in style; polished realism, literary and journalistic pastiches, interior 'stream of consciousness', surrealist fantasy as well as a complex pattern of allusion to (amongst other things) Homer's story of Odysseus. Joyce's later work, especially Finnegan's Wake (1939), experiments still further with the extent to which language can be played with 'for its own sake', and dissolve the ordinary world. Only Samuel Beckett - also an Irishman - has maintained Modernist fiction at the limit where it is no longer about anything real at all, but becomes (as in The Unnameable; 1960) a form of pure writing.
Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) first wrote conventionally realistic novels, then reacted against realism based on the overseeing viewpoint of the author. Her novels Mrs Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927) use the narrative method known as 'stream of consciousness', which shows 'reality' as it flows through the minds of her characters - steeped in currents of memory, anticipation, feeling and thought.
The greatest novel of this kind, however, remains Remembrance of Things Past (1913-27) by Marcel Proust (1871-1922). This immense work in seven parts explores a whole life from childhood to middle age, not as a chronological narrative, objectively reported, but as a process of ever-shifting realization, a reality continuously reborn through memory and transformed into thought.
Beyond personal vision
Almost all the poetry, fiction and drama written in the 20th century bears the stamp of Symbolism and Modernism. The extraordinarily innovative work of two authors writing in German deserves particular mention here: that of the Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke (1875-1926) and of the Czech novelist Franz Kafka (1883-1924). Both evoke a sense of spiritual crisis caused by the failure of conventional values. Rilke gradually taught himself to write a poetry not of personal feeling but of supra-personal vision - opening himself to the reality of things (he said) not as a man but as an angel might see them. Kafka similarly evokes a world in which personal viewpoints fail, though in his case the vision seems less angelic than demonic. He asked for his unpublished work to be destroyed, but the incomplete text of two novels appeared as The Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926). Both have a terrifying hallucinatory quality, and the word 'Kafkaesque' has been coined to describe a nightmarish sense of isolation and alienation in a dehumanized world. Rilke and Kafka believed in art alone as a source of salvation, though Kafka - with Jewish humor - wondered whether his intense preoccupation with writing were not also responsible for his intense sense of crisis.
* SYMBOLISM, SECESSION AND EXPRESSIONISM
* CUBISM AND ABSTRACTION
* DADA AND SURREALISM
* ROMANTICISM
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATRE
* MODERN DRAMA IN BRITAIN AND THE USA
* MODERN POETRY
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1-1-1
11U1-11
1U1U11
b^1
:Y^^b
1-1-1
--1--1
-11U1
--1--
--1-1
1U2U11:1U1
1U1-1
U1--1-1
:2^b
:U2:U
1-11-
:^:11
Y11V
11U11
-Y1--
U-11-1
1-1U:
1--11
11-1-
1U1^11
U11-1
U1-11
1-11:
11-1U
--11-
1-1--
1-1-1U
1-11-
1U11-
11-11
11-1-
11-U1
U:U::
1--11-
-11-1-11
2U11--
1U11-
1-1U1
f b
--,--
-11-
--11-1
1:U1-
:^1U1
1U11
1-1-Y
U1-1-
11--1
11-1-11-
^Y:Y:
1-11U1V
1U-11-
1U:U
1U11-1
1-11--
1-11-
11U11
:2Y1^
1U:U-
1U11--
--1-1
11U11
-1^2-
Y:--1--
1U1^11
2U11-
-1--11-11
11-1U1
--1-11
1--1-
-11-1-
11U1^
--1U1
11-11-1U1
1-1--
11-1-
--1-1-1-1
-1--:
11-1U
11-1-
1--11
-11-1--
U-11-
^^ 1U^^-
1--11
-11-1
-1-11
:Y^:V
1-1--
--11-
-11:YU
^::V1
-1--1
U::1V
11U1V
--1U11
U1:1U11
1U1--
--1--
-11--1-
:1-1-:
1U11U11
:U2U^
1V11:U1
11-1-
1 1-1
1-11-1
1-11-
f ::
-1-11-1
U2^:2-
11U:U2
^U^^
1--1--
1-11U
-11-1-11
--11-
-1-11-1-
-1-11-1
-1-1-
^1--1
1:Y^^:
1--11
1^11-1U
2U11-1
2U:11^1
-1--11
:Y1--
1--11
-1U1-
1-11-
U:1U11
-11-11
^1-11
-11U11
11-U:
1-11-
-1-1^
U1--1
:U11-
:U1V:1
U:1-1
-1-1-,1
1U:U11
-1U1-
11212-
1-1-1
11-1-
-11U1
-1U1-
-11-1
-1-1-1-
1-11-
11U1-1U
1-1-1
^21V:
11-11
-U11-
11U11
11-1-11
:Y2^11U^
1^:VY:
11-1-
-11-1-
-11^1--
1--1-1
112^1
--1-11
1U1U2
1^1:Y1-1
--11-1
-1-11-
^ Y2:
-11-11-
11-11-1
-11^2
-:Y--
-1--11
11U11--
-1-11-
1-1^1
:1^2Y2
- 21U1
U:V1V
,-1-1
11-11
-11-11
11212
--1-,
^1U21
1U1--
1--1--
UY1U-
11-U21
-1--1-
1:U:1
U1-1-11
--1^11
U11-1
U:U:11
1U-1-1
1--1-
11-U2
Z11U1
--1-11--1-
-1U-11-
1-1-1
1 1--
-1-1-
1-1--
Y1V1U11
11--11
V1^:U
11-U1
11U1-
U1V1U1-
1U11-
11V1-
1-1Y-
:12^:
-1-:^:b
-1-11:
:-1-1-
11-11-
1--1-
1-1--1
11-11
1-1--
-11^1
-1121
1-1-Y
1-11-
2^1--
1-11-,1
U11--
1-11-
-11--
--11U2^
--1-1
1-2U:U
-:U11
-1-::
-1-,-1
-1-11-1--
^11-1U
1-11-:
1U:U2U1U
^1U11-
1-11--1
-11-1
-1--11
11--11:
-b-11
1^2^1-
1-1--
1:1-1
-1212
-,1-1-
11U1:
11-1-
-11-1
-11:U
1U:Y1
--1-11
-1-11
--1:1-11
-U-1:U
-:U1U
-11-1
-11-1
1^:1b
-11V1
^ b
:^1:U
-1-1-
1U:--
^:26^
1-1-11
1-1-1--
:^Y:Y
1:V1^
2U:V
1-1-1-
1-1-1
1U:--1-
b :
-1--1-
-1U11
-1-1-1
-11-1
:-11-:
--11:
-1-11
-1-11
-1-1_
-1-11-
Y^1-1-
U:11-
11-1-
--11-
--1-1
b V:Y
-1--1-
--1-1
11-1-1
1-11-
1-1--
1^11U
-11-:
-11--
--1--11-
11U1--1
:11--
112^1-1
-1:U1
V:Y1:-
--1U:
11U1:1
1U1:Y
:-11-:
^Z^
^^U:V1
12U2^
11-11
-1U:Y
:U2^:Y
1-1-1
1-1--
1-1-1-
11U11-
11-1-1-11-
U11-1
U11--
1-1-1-
1-1-1-
11--1
-11-11-
1--1-
1U:-11
11-1-
11U11
1-1-1--
-11-1-11
--11-
-11-11
-11-1
-1-1-1-
1--1--
1--11
11-11
-11-1
21-11
11U1-
-1-1-
2:Y211-
11-11
-1-1-
11^21
1U:U:^
-1-11
U112U
--,--
-1--1-
121V1
1-1U1
11--1-11
1-11-
:-1V::
1U12U1
-11-11-
--1-1-,
1-1-1-1-
1-1-1
--11-
11--1
-1-1--1
V1U12
-11--,
11-11-
-1-1-
1--,1
11-1,1
-,-1,11
^1-11
-1-1-1
-1-1-
-11-11-
-1-11
-11-1--
11-11
1-1-1-
11-11-:
-1--1-
-1-11
11V1V1
-1-11
--1-1
-11-1-
-1-11-
-1-11-11-1
11V:1
-1-11
11-11
1-1--1
U11^1
1-11U
21^11V1
11-1-1
U11-11
U11--
1U1-1
11V1U
^1:U:1U
2Y:Y:
12:2Y:2
2^Y:V11
p642-1
ftsTitleOverride
Experimental Theater (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Life of Galileo, by Bertolt Brecht. In his 'epic' theater Brecht sought to create what he called the 'alienation effect' - a critical detachment conducive to rational understanding of the social and political contexts in which his characters act. In the 1980 National Theater production illustrated here, this effect is fostered by a backdrop setting the action in its geographical and historical context.
Experimental Theater (1 of 2)
The 20th century has witnessed an enormous expansion in experiment and innovation in European theater. Radical developments have pushed back the frontiers of theatrical taste and fundamentally challenged the basic relationship between performers and spectators established in the 19th century. German Expressionism, Epic Theater, the Theater of Cruelty and the Theater of the Absurd all began as experiments designed to break away from the dominant theatrical convention of Naturalism. Many dramatists, directors, designers and performers forcibly challenged naturalistic writing and realistic performance conventions in search of an alternative and more dynamic theatrical experience.
Naturalism became established first as a literary convention through the work of the French novelist
mile Zola, but its influence can also be seen in many of the plays of European dramatists of the late 19th century, such as Ibsen, Strindberg, and Chekhov. By creating the illusion of reality on the stage and by focusing on closely observed portraits of individuals, often in a domestic or family context, Naturalistic writers sought to demonstrate the vital importance of the environment in determining human behavior.
In Russia the director Constantin Stanislavsky (1863-1938) made a major contribution to the development of what is now generally referred to as naturalistic acting. In books such as An Actor Prepares he outlined his theories of acting and thus influenced the way in which the craft was taught, especially in America, where a Stanislavski-based approach be came known as Method acting.
German Expressionism
German Expressionism, a deliberate movement away from Naturalism, began around 1910. It employed radically different performance conventions which, instead of attempting to imitate life, drew attention to themselves as art. It included exaggerated shapes, unusual and highly contrasting color combinations, and robotic movement. Expressionists concentrated on expressing the hidden but deeply significant world of individual emotions rather than realistically depicting what they regarded as the superficial exterior of reality. Expressionists sought to discover spiritual truths rather than seeking to confront the social and political issues cherished by many Naturalistic dramatists.
Following World War I German Expressionism became more concerned with universal as opposed to purely individualistic concerns. In particular, it ex pressed fears of a general and imminent world catastrophe. Between 1919 and 1924 the movement exercised considerable influence not only in Germany, but also in the rest of Europe. Two dramatists in particular are associated with it: the Germans Georg Kaiser (1878-1945) and Ernst Toller (1893-1939).
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM
* MODERN DRAMA IN BRITAIN AND THE USA
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
(1U1T1U1U1
Q11-1L10--
,Q,--
UT1Q0Q10y5
101U1
,1-11-T
T-0-1
0100-U
0-1T11
110--
11U41U10
110U110
1T10Q)U--
0-1T1-1U0-
U1T11
U14U1T1U
U01U1T1
-0-1-0
U0U-011P1Q
U,U-T
1-1,-,1,Q0
11,U,,Q1-,
P,T1U0U1T1
Q0U1T1
1P1,U-(
--0--
P0-1Q,1Q0Q
1T-U0P(-1,
1-0QP
-10Q1U011
01U1U1yy11
T1U1U
P1T-T-0U10
0Q1T11,U0-
y10y11U1U[
T-0--1
01U01U1
1U01T1U0
0U-,1
P1-,1U-011
01y11
T1U11U1x1U
11y1]
T-T1-U1
P1-01
0U1-1
0-1U1T
-,-,-
-0U1U01U11
U11y110P
1T1UU
-1010
1U1U1y
)P-Q0-
01UQ01-xU
Y11U1y
y11U1UY
]U110U
1UUyT
T-U11T
1U1U1
U0Q-,
-1U0U11-1
U-y1U1UU11
y,1L1y
1T101T110U
11011U1
U1)1U,
y0U-11U1U1
01U-T1
1y1y]yy
1-1QQ1u1-y
1U0]1
1T11U11U1
11yUY1Q
Y1,1UU
-1U1U
UVy11-
T1U-,M-
101-U
-,--,
1T11-
1y1U2y
U1-P1,Q-
,U1,--U1-1
,-U11,1
Q0Q11U
U11U1M1Y10
1U1P)1U-11
U110Q
T-101
U-11U-
1y1U1T0
P-10-
,-0--L,
Q-4-1T
T,--1
yVyyU
01U01-U
-U0-1-P0
yVyUyy
-11UU
U1y1U11U
U1U0UTU
,yTQU,L
-1-01-11U1
1Q-0U
uUUyVP
Uy1y1Y
01)0Q1y11y
\U1)y
T1QPx,p,PT
yTUTxTTQxu
,T110T1T
--Vu)Q--Q-
y1T1U
UU0,PU
TxtyP
UPU,u0xU
-01,1
-0-11Q
--U1U]
Ux90]
PTPTPL0PLT
%$Q%P
\]U91
tUPTyPyTtx
xxQT-(t
,T,LQxTt
UyQyQQ-M
,-$I-P)H
x0xTx
tTx,tLx,xU
x0t0P(
0xxUxP
-1-0U
U1U1y2U
zRu)u$M
qQu-I
PL-PxTt
TPxTx
P,,L,,x
-xPTT
(U12x
)uQuyQy-u-
Q%Q%$%,
1U1\1T9
]T91U0Z]
xTtTQ
xxPUPxTx0P
1U1U11
zyvqP
TPyx,PQx,
-,P(y0t-
tMPTQPTPP
19y10P
L,UU|U}
u1(U,$
-11-1
U1U1y0V
\x,t,
PP,P,$
-0U1U
x,,(P
Q(tPM,P,PH
T0T9]\]
,t(1x
TyxPxTP
T1U0t
TPyTxU1P0Q
,Tu,t1,xPT
P,P,(
PTy0yT
TP,LxT
L-x0t
91101
U11-1
1-)P1,
(x,y,t(
PQQT-
PP,L0x0x8\
UyUyUyT
PyP$Ux,P
,L1xTPUx
L-xt,t
P1UPt1Q
10U01U
1-1T1U
y0ut)xU
x0xTPPyTyT
L-t,Q
,L,P,$PM,T
xtUt0TTxxT
x0y]x\
yTQ1T
TP,x,u(
T,t0y
xQpUtyPx
UyTyxxQy,0
uxu\xxyTtx
PtPPx
U0y1x
t1UytUx
(,pUt
-y1U1
y,U1y1y1QQ
]U1Q)
,yx,P
0P,yT
xTy0$
U1U0y
y1U-1
P,(yx
y,PMP
1T1U10U1T
UxPT0Tx
TxTP0
-]y,U,
QPLtP)
,0t,P
t,xxPT
P,uTxyTt(
PxP,TTx
t(P,,(x
xtTtytTyP
P$P,xy
xPxTt
P0,LPU
$,MPxx
xP0PTP
tMtuPt
QxUx,L
0tTyT
TtTuxTxTx,
yPPUxTx
UtTyT
tuxQtLy
x,L,(T$UtT
xPp0P-TP,
xTx,xPL0
,U0T,
P,(xx
tTP,U,x-
,xP(,x
0xt(ytx,
TT,(,t(tT
1,,LUxP
xPP,L0t0
(,P(P]P,
-QP1P-,
,-,T,0y
Tx1x1TU1x1
yTP0L0t0tU
TP,-y0xTP
Q,--P)0xQT
t1,P(Q(
tPt0t
xPtPx
P(P0U,
-0U0y-x1TQ
-x-U-,y
TxTyTxUt-t
$,q-P
t0LTy
ux0TTt
TP,t0
xTxPxTt)x$
-(t0$
-,QM--L
xTT,L
0PTt0PT
t(PLtQ
P1U01U0UUT
xTtT,P(
\xxPP$$,
TUt0x,t
0PTP(PH,x,
tp0t(
(P,yTxUx,
(t,L,,$
P,T,L,y
t,p,Pp
x0t,tLT
,pPp,,L
tPpxTPT
PyPtx
P(t0,(
PTuTttPP$
xt(tL
TtTxyUxx1x
TUTUTxUT-y
0x-,u
$$Pxtt
PxtTx-TPQT
T-PUT,t1xy
0t,xTUt0P,
x0Q,L,,t0P
,P(TH1P,Q,
,t,TPPU$
UxxUt
UtyTxQTTU,
xTPTt0yTyx
Tx-xTP-xTU
P1x1uTUTQP
U,p0x0t-x,
T,TPT,TP(-
PT,P,(T,$
L-t,(QLPUP
,M,P$
P$$H,Q
00U,y
PTyTPP(x,y
T0t0xUyTy
xUyTyUx0t1
tUxy,P0PPL
P0u,x1x,U,
L0PMT
-Mx0P-(xUt
0xTQx,x,yT
xPyxTuTtty
Ptt,,upPut
,T-,q0PLP0
,(U0UT
xUTUx1|Ut5
tyTx1x,yPp
t0x-t,)t0,
P0t),xu,T,
LPUP,x,Px-
txTx1xUtxx
TtTxy
xyTxP
PxUxx
,pPP0
MTP(T,LPy,
T,T,P(P0P
0yTxUTPyxy
xuTyPxxQxt
xTtTx
TyTtyxx,tP
yTxtxTyT
QTxPpT
UxTyTyUx
tyTyT
x$Pt(
PTtqxPt,
vUu)QQ%-$
tTtUxx
P,pPL
zQq-)Q)%
Q1uMuIH-H,
p,P-p
tptPp,Pp
TxTttT
(x,yP
9\0]8^fb
MyUu-L
U-0-y,U0y
,xUxUxTt0x
TPTxTUTxTT
TtPtP
xtp,0t
,QP,pUP
M-U-1M,Q)-
-,P)Q1
$,LPpx
tLtPPp,
xUtTx,
P(P(T$UP,
tTtPt
P(,PPL
,x,(Tu
PL,tTx
tTtt(xPuTx
(P,M,
PPL,xt(,x
tLttLxPt(x
,y,,LUP
xPtpPxPxx
P,,L,
y,Ux,
txLPPt
P0LTux
yx18xU
,PLQP
xQP1tL
,pHTx
(xPxPL
PL,L,,P
(t0P-,P(,U
xPUTyTy
tPtptP
TP(PLPLPP
(t,Pp,,p
TtLPP
,$,$,(U,P
(Q,1,,L,P(
LPp,,
-x-U*
LP,LPxTt(
,P,T,$,(P,
,pTttT
(y,P(P,q
(PLtp,,y
P1,L,,P(
LP(xQ
PTtPL,
tUxTP
$,L,-,L
$-xTy
L,P(,,L,
,,P(0P
y,P(P
-L1xxU
P(T,q
yPL,l
xQPUt
tTtTx
xUxyx
P(,t(P
(,L,L
,,p,L
0U1,M
P,L,$
(P,(,P
),L,-
P-L-,M,
,$P),
P$TPxy$
P(,pPq]
P,PTt
$,L,L,$
-(UPq
tPp,L
,(P,$
1P,(PUx$
qt1ut(,
,pTx,
$x,xTP
,U12\
P,yTP,xT
-p,QtQu
,LtTy
P,P(t
$u0tx
,x0,11
t(P,pP
-t(P(0$
,t,x-
yQM-2
:CbC:c
cC:?f;
bCcBc Bc
?BcBc
>?B_>g
>?>g>cBc?g
c:b?Bc?
C?>g>g
cf?bB?>g>
C>?Bc>B?
>f >f
g>>Bc>g>Cb
?b?c>g>c?
cfc > ?
Bb?g
??Bc>C >c
>B >g>c >
?^?Bc>g
>?f>?
>?f?c
Cb:b?Bc
bf >g ?
?f?f>
f ?fcf cfc
BbCb
?gb > ?
g>? >
>g> >g >
c>g>f? B
b>f?:c
?Bb
k ?f? >>
>g ?
^2^2Q
? j ?
? ?f >?g
b b >C>
j > f?
> >gb>f
f?g>? >
bC > ]? >
? >f ?
bg >fb
b > >
b c: b
cB >f
>?f> ?f
?bgbcB
>g:cB
B?cB> ?Cb?
F > j
j F j
g>bC>?
? >?Bb?f>B
BcBc>g>c
Cc?Bc>g
cB b
g>Cb?BcC
j g>
?>Cb;bC>c
>g > >gj
b kj
jb C^
>Cb?B >g?
?f>cBc
Cb?Bc?
jc j
c > ?Bc>C
?bC>cf>^
b?g>g
bfj >
>g>?B?f
>g >Cb?c
?jcj
>CbC
f?bCc
>g>c>Bc
>Cc>g>C>
BcBcBc
cbf?c
j b cB? >
B ? ? >
jc B?>Cb>
c>Cb?f
>cbg>g>C
?f?b>Cc>
j F
?Cb?f?:c
Cc?Cb>C
BcCb>Cb
?f?bC
G ?>
>Bcjc
F>g>C>cC^>
? jcj
> >g>c>
f>f ?
jcF >g>B
bg >g
?bcB?
> ?
Bb>g>g
?g? >g>B?
?Bc>g >
?Cb?f?
k j
?bCcBc
>f?>C
g F b
>g?b?f?
j ? >g>
c?f?>C>
f jc>g?
?bCc ?j
g?f?>c
BcBc F
j?f?g>
Cbcf?
b?Bc > j
gb?B?
F > >c
b C> >g
b Cb?
? ?f?C
>?g>?f
j >
>g>g
?B?f?c>
>bkbC
?Bc?F?
Bc>g?
j?f?j
G ?bC
>Cb?fc
f>cBc>
?f>cBb?f>
p642-2
Monsieur Ubu in a woodcut by Alfred Jarry for the first production of Ubu Roi in 1896. The play, which blends ribald farce, violence and stylized stage conventions, describes how the grotesque, puppet-like figure of Ubu becomes King of Poland and is driven to commit savage atrocities by his uncontrollable lust for power. Ubu Roi is regarded as a milestone in the history of experimental theater.
Happy Days, by Samuel Beckett. Beckett's dramas typically strip reality down to its barest essentials in order to address fundamental aspects of the human condition. In Happy Days - a fable of human self-delusion in the face of the inevitability of death - Winnie, although sinking ever deeper into the ground, still chatters about mundane matters and shows great concern with the contents of her handbag. Shown here is Peggy Ashcroft as Winnie in the 1975 National Theater production.
Experimental Theater (2 of 2)
Epic theater
The rise of the Nazi party in Germany in the 1920s almost compelled artists to become concerned with collective as opposed to simply individual issues. Expressionism declined and another militant anti-naturalistic approach gained ground. Its leading light was the radical socialist theater director Erwin Piscator (1893- 1966). He attempted to create performances of plays specifically aimed at a working-class audience and designed to increase their political awareness. Piscator's objective was to use the theater to teach people about social issues. Using stylized acting, filmed sequences and cartoons, his productions attempted to assist the audience in connecting the dramatic situations on the stage with those of real life.
Piscator's most famous disciple was the German dramatist and lyric poet Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956), whose concept of 'epic' theater has exerted an enormous influence on the drama of the 20th century. Brecht's early work, notably Baal (1922) and Drums in the Night (1922), was influenced by the Expressionists. He collaborated with the composer Kurt Weill (1900-1950) on The Threepenny Opera (1928) and Mahagonny (1930). These highly original and successful works, with their cabaret-like style and pointed satire, marked a new approach to musical theater. But in the 1920s Brecht had also begun to write plays and to devise a theory of performance designed to help audiences to look critically at social issues. He wanted to create in them not simply an emotional response to characters, but a passion for rational argument and debate. In order to achieve this Brecht wanted to distance audiences emotionally from the action and characters on the stage in order that they might more clearly see and understand the social and political contexts in which the characters acted.
Brecht later described the effect he sought to create as the Verfremdungs effekt ('alienation effect'). But Brecht certainly did not want to put people off theater. Above all else he believed that theater-going should be entertaining. He wanted audiences to see the known and familiar as if for the first time, and to question what they had previously taken for granted.
A communist since the late 1920s, Brecht was forced into exile by the Nazis; first in Europe and subsequently in the USA. From exile he wrote the dramas that best illustrate his dramatic techniques: Mother Courage (1937), Galileo, (1938-9), The Good Person of Setzuan (1938-40), The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui (1940), and The Caucasian Chalk Circle (1944-5). In these works stylized acting and use of songs are intended to draw the audience's attention to the fact that they are watching a play.
After World War II Brecht returned to communist East Germany and founded a theater company: the Berlin Ensemble. The company toured widely in Europe and its revolutionary style was to have a profound impact on directors and audiences.
Theater of cruelty
Between the wars in Europe a radically different form of theatrical experiment was evolving in France. The work of Antonin Artaud (1896-1948), and especially his book The Theater and its Double (1938), was to exert an enormous influence on the subsequent development of the theater.
Artaud entirely rejected the conventions of Naturalistic and Realistic theater. He believed that it was too preoccupied with social and psychological issues and so failed to harness what he saw as the true potential of theater: to make audiences feel totally involved in a powerful and even magical event. The theater, Artaud believed, could exorcise man's destructive urges by purging the emotions, and appealing not to the rational mind, but communicating directly with the senses. He termed his ideal theater a 'theater of cruelty', because he felt that within it an audience would be continually confronted with their real selves, and such a confrontation would inevitably lead to deep feelings akin to physical pain and discomfort.
Artaud wanted to move performances away from traditional venues in purpose- built theaters and the associations they carried with them. He wanted to perform in factories and in the street, and to locate the action in unexpected places.
Elsewhere in Europe dramatists were also conducting theatrical experiments. In Italy Luigi Pirandello (1867-1936) was writing an extraordinary series of plays of which the best known remains Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921), in which he explored ideas of illusion and reality, the role of performers and spectators, and the very nature of the theatrical experience itself.
In Britain the work of the director Peter Brook (1925- ) was influenced by Artaud. He, too, expressed the belief that 'the theater has one precise social function - to disturb the spectator'. In experimental-theater workshops, inspired by Artaud's ideas, Brook explored non-verbal communication and radical assaults on the sensibility of the audience. Perhaps Brook's greatest impact on British theater came through his staging of Shakespeare. His famous production in 1970 of A Midsummer Night's Dream, which set the action in a gymnasium, with characters swinging acrobatically from trapezes, caused critics and audiences to re-evaluate not only the play itself, but also the conventional approaches to staging it.
Theater of the absurd
The notion of the 'absurd', defining human existence as incomprehensible, be wildering and purposeless, was given currency by the philosophical writings of the French novelist Albert Camus in the 1940s. The term 'theater of the absurd' was coined by the critic Martin Esslin in 1961. It describes the work of a number of dramatists he regards as preoccupied with the 'absurdity' of the human condition, and which present a vision of mankind adrift in a world devoid of ultimate meaning.
While absurd drama is normally associated with dramatists writing after World War II, elements of the absurd can be found in the work of earlier writers, including the plays written by Jean Cocteau (1889-1963) in the 1920s, and, most notably, a wild and grotesque production by the Frenchman Alfred Jarry (1873-1907). Ubu Roi (1896) - an extravagant farce that savagely attacks conventional moral and aesthetic values - is considered by many to be the first work in the absurd tradition.
Of the postwar practitioners of absurd drama, the best known are the Romanian-born Frenchman Eugene Ionesco (1912- ) and the Irishman Samuel Beckett (1906-89). In common with the other experiments described above, absurd drama abandoned Naturalism. There were no familiar domestic settings, no comfortable structure containing a beginning, middle and end. Events were not linked together with any clear causality.
The scope for comedy afforded by an absurd view of existence is evident in Ionesco's anarchic early play The Bald Prima Donna (1948). However, somber themes of isolation and the difficulty of communication are present in a scene in which two strangers, engaged in a trivial discussion of homes and families, are staggered to find that they are in fact man and wife. Ionesco's later plays - notably The Killer (1960) and Exit the King (1962) - show an increasing obsession with the horror of death.
Beckett's Waiting for Godot (1952) - one of the most influential plays of the 20th century - addresses nothing less than the human condition itself. It shows men trying hard to pass the time meaningfully as they await the only certainty: death. Here, and in Beckett's other plays (not ably Endgame, 1958; and Happy Days, 1961), language - manipulated in a variety of styles and with a poetic concentration of meaning - is virtually the only action. This, and Beckett's hard-edged comedy, relate him closely to his friend and countryman James Joyce.
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM
* MODERN DRAMA IN BRITAIN AND THE USA
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Experimental Theater (page 2)
ftsTitle
2,232]
W+3]2
,23]]3
,2,22
],2+,
3W2W2WW
2W^]W]W
]]WW]^2,
W2,2^
2+,2]
p644-1
ftsTitleOverride
Modern Drama in Britain and the USA (page 1)
ftsTitle
George Bernard Shaw. As well as writing over 50 plays, Shaw was an accomplished journalist, a tireless public speaker, and an active socialist, serving on the executive committee of the Fabian Society, supporting women's rights, and advocating the abolition of private property.
Modern Drama in Britain and the USA (1 of 2)
Modern drama in Britain and America is distinctive for its concern with issues. These may, amongst other things, relate to politics, morality, racism, and/or religion. Equally, the main concerns of modern theater may be to do with theater itself - how it works; what it means; the nature of its conventions, and the kind of language it uses. Finally, the ideas explored in modern drama may be those specifically associated with Modernism. Foremost among these are the workings of time and memory; the problems surrounding communication, and a sense that life is meaningless.
Most theatrical epochs have also been concerned with the nature of theater and its relationship to society. Modern British drama, however, follows the theatrically lean period of the 19th century, when the best creative writers chose the medium of the novel or poetry rather than the stage. Plays were written primarily as vehicles to display the personalities of leading actors, and as the foundation on which to build elaborate spectacle.
Such was the situation in both Britain and America for most of the 19th century. The modern drama of issues and ideas emerged first in Britain, and can conveniently be broken into three distinct phases.
Britain before World War I
By the beginning of the 20th century two Anglo-Irish dramatists, George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) and Oscar Wilde(1854-1900), had established their plays on the London stage as a rich alternative to the mediocrity of much late-Victorian drama. Both men combined a wonderful facility with words with a shrewd and often caustic wit, which they focused on the behavior of high society. Wilde's plays, especially The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), were enormously successful, whilst those of Shaw continued to edify and entertain audiences for over half a century.
In contrast with many of his theatrical peers, Shaw was concerned with more than filling stages with spectacle and illusion. Like Henrik Ibsen, the Norwegian dramatist he so admired, he wanted to feed the intelligence of audiences with a diet of new ideas about society, such as socialism. 'I write plays with the deliberate object of converting the nation to my opinions', he once said, only half tongue-in-cheek.
Shaw's concern with ideas does not make his a weighty or dull drama. His work fizzes with wit and verbal dexterity. His powers were probably at their height in the years leading up to World War I, when he produced plays such as Arms and the Man (1894), Man and Superman (1905), Major Barbara (1905), and Heartbreak House (1920).
Britain between the wars
The inter-war period in Britain, although punctuated by the appearance of one or two remarkable plays, produced no significant school of dramatic writing, and genuine theatrical innovation is hard to find. A few notable plays from this period do continue to be revived. Foremost among these are R.C. Sherriff's (1896-1975) dramatization of the hellish life of soldiers on the front line in World War I, Journey's End (1928); several plays concerned with various aspects of time, notably Time and the Conways (1937), by J.B. Priestley (1894-1984); and the poet T.S. Eliot's verse dramas such as Murder in the Cathedral (1935).
The London stage regularly enjoyed revivals and new plays by Shaw, and additionally it was now elegantly adorned by the 'talent to amuse' of the young Noel Coward (1899-1973). Coward enjoyed a phenomenal success and made a reputation and a considerable fortune from the theater.
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
y]UUy]y0
Y1T10111T1y
TUU0y1T11x10
Y1y1U1y1T1y1
U1YUUU1U0U1y
1UU11U]U1U1y1U1T1U0
1UU1U11U0U1101U1110Q01U11--0-1-
-0---1--1-1T
1U1y1y-y1U11y1y]y1
UUY11U
UU011
1y]U]
U]U]U
1y111
]U1y1U]UUU
]UYUy1U101U1y1T11y11U1x-1U1UU11U111-1-,
-0-0-0
UUU1U1T11TUU1y1U4UUU0y1y1y1T
1U1U1T
U1UUU]UUy1U1T
10y1y1
11Y1y1UUU9U101
110y1111Y1U1U111111U-T111011-1--0-
11-11--0
U111y01U1y1Y1T
}1U]y1
1y11y101UUy1
Uy1U]y11U]yU1U1U0UU]U0y1U10
UU1U0U1U1U10
1TU-1111T1U111-11-0-10-01Q11-1-
y1y1-1111UUU01yUU
U1x1]U0U
U1y10U1U
11U]y1YUU1
UU1UUY0
0U01y111U1
0U10U1U0U1U1111T1U1U1U1P1U-1-
T-,--1-
-1U01y1U0UUY1U1
y11y1
1y1UU11T1U
1YU]y]U1
y9U1x
UUUU1y
U1y1U0
,U1UU1111101U0U11U10110111110--111-0-
T-0-1-11
1y1-y111yY1y1
)0U10Q1
1yy]y1
yUY]U1y1y1
U]1U1T]U1YUU101y11U
1yU1T1
1U11T111U1111-01Q11(1-11)T-
1--1-0-1
yy111111y1y
UY11U]U1U1x1y10U11U1
TU]UUU]y1
]U]U]U01y
UU11UU10U
1y1y10U11T11111T
11U1U1P111U11110-111T
U111-0-0-0-
1y]yy1TU
]Y1Q1U01y1,U
UU1y]U
Y0UUyy1y
1y1y1y]UYU1y0UUUY
1UYUT1101UUU0U11UUU11T
U111011T111T1U101T111110111U
1-1--
1y1yU
1U111-TU
]U1yYUU]
YUY10y1U1y1U111U111T111U110
011Q111U011101-1111T11Q11111-0-
UYy01y1UT
1U1yUy1T1U]yUU0yy1T1T1y1UUU]y]UUy
1yU]UU
Uy1UUT]y9y0UU
1Y1y1y1
U1011U0Q0U111-,U
-0--,11----
-0-11-10-0100-0-1-0-
yU01U
UTUUU1U]yUy1U]U10U]y
y]yT1y1U
}UU0y1U]U]U1yy1
UUU1U0y1Y1U1U01U110U
1-,-011111U1101-
-----
yY]UU]
UyU]UUUUYU
UUU10
1-101U0y
1T]x]UU
UUUUy1y1U1UUUU
11y1U010U10---
U0U11U11T1U0--
YUU]y10U1U0
U0U1xUUUU
TUU1UyUU]y
UYy1yUUy1
1y]y1
UY1y1UTy1y110U1----0-1T1U11U10U1-,
----,
UU0UUU
U0y1T
y9y1Yy
1y1T]
UY1UTU1U0
U101T1T1-T
T11U11101U1U
}y0U1UU]U0UUU
TUUUU]U
y]UUyy0
y9y1UUY1y1y1y1y10U1U11-
1U11T1y0U--
--1--
y]UUU]
1UTU]y1yy1y1yUUUU1T1yYy1
Uy]U]y1U]y0U]y1y1y]UU11UU1U1U,-,-1U1T11U11-
T1-11U1011U11,-0-1-
y]yy]UU
y11Uy]y
111T1y11y]UUT]yU
1y1xUU]U
1y11yUU1
-1-10U
-10111T10U101T111--T1,U-1-
Uy10y1y0y
UU0U1y11y
1U]yU
1TUU0y
1UyT1U10U
110U1U1T
(1UU1U-U111U1UU11-01-01-1-0-P1--,
y1yU]y1y]Q111P10
y]y]y]y1y]UUy
11110-1-,11y1y1U
-0111y
101U01U01UU1U10
11P1110-1-11
]y]xyUy1yU
]U0y]UTyyy1
yUT11
U]Uy1UT
1T1T1--01111T1-
111y1UU110U1U1U011U0U0U1UU01-
P1110-
T--,-
---1-1-
Uyy1yUUy]y]
UT1U1U]U]
1y]yUUx1y1Yy10y]U1111y1T1-
,111U1,
1U11T11U1011UUy111U11111U1U1U1-1
-011T
1y1yU
y]y]y]
y1yYUUUUY1y1T1T
1yU0U1-T11U0yUU10U011T110UUU1TUU,U1U
-0-111-
]y]y1y0y1U-x
UU]U]y]
y]yU0y
Uy1T]
1y1U0
U1110U
---010-
1y11T1U11T11T1y1y1U1111U101y1U111U11-1,1---
U1-0--1
11T1y]
1y]y]yUUy]y101U0U
UUUU0
1U11U01yy1y10UUUT1U01U1U11T1U0U11P1-0-0--
110--0-
UYUUy-]
]y]1X]y]
1y1y11y0U01
-11T1
1T1y111T110U1U
y1U11111U1101y1T11111-01-01-
--111
UUUT1
}1yYy0y1T10U1Q
T1-1y1T1y1U
1U01TUU1yUUT1y0yy1UY101U1-1T11U11UU1y1T11U1Q1--
UxUY]
y]x1y1y-
UU]UUy1U1U1P1
-1U1-0Q1x]U]y1y1T1Y0
111y11y1UUUU
1Uy1x1U0101y1T1T11U01-11,-
U111-1
]y]yx
UxyUy
1y1U010-
1-0111y
]U1y1U1Y1U
U1y1yU0
0y10y1y1y]xUU1y11y1U1-U11UU01U101U0U-
0-0-,-0-
y]yy]UUyU0Y-
UTy1Uy1U11--11T11T1y
]UTU1T
y1y0y1T1y0Uy
1y1U1y1
y1y9yUU1T11,U01UU11U-01U01-10
UT1-T
YU1y10U01-01T11111
U11UU01y1UUUUU1U1x1UUUUx
y]yU111U1U,U1U01U11-11,1
1y]TUU0U1T
U11Q0U
Uy1TUyyY
1U1TU
1yTUUU
UT]y11P1T11111T11011T10-1-
y]U0Q1
yUy1yU1UUU11-TU10UUU0
10UUy11y1
UT]y0UU
y1y1yY110U0
1111U0
y]yU0UU
y]y]UUU0Uy011T1U1U1y
y1yy1T
]x1yy0UUUyU
1y1UU1101T111P1T
--1,1,1--,
UUU1111-01yUU1y0y1yy]
01y1y]UUyUTy1y]y1y1
Y]yUy]
1U1U1U1U11T1111--
-0-1--
011-1U1
y]U,U
]U01P1y1T11UUTUYy1y0U]yy1T1y1yy]U1yy
UYy1y
UU1TUy0UUU11-
--,1-1,
y0yUT11Q110UUy
y]y1y]
UYy1]UUy
Uy]yUU
y1T]U]
1y1y1yUy1UU10Q010U1
-0--,-1-11
0y0-U
Uyy]y
UU]U111U0U0U1
]yYUx]Uy1
UT11yy]y
Uy]y]T]yUyUUy
UYUUy]y]Yy]y]U1y01U11P1-
-11-0-1T1
1y]UU
UU]UUyT1Q01111yUy11x
y1y10
]UUU1yU]
UUUYy]
Ux1y1x
]yyyU
yYUyT11U10-1-
-11T1-1111
y1U1y
y0y0y
-01U1U0y1
Uy]U]y
UyY1111011-
-0y1,U
1U-1--1
]yUUx1
y]y]y
1Uy]U
U1U01yU
yUyUy]T
UU1y]y0yyx]y0y]y]yUUU
yTyyUy1
y]U4yUY
UU11y
T1U0Q
11U0-
Q0U10U11
]1U]Q
1UyTU1U
UUUUUT-U1T1yy]T]y1
U]UUyy
Uy1TUT1y110
U111,-
--011y111T
UUUyUy
]y]y]
]UUU0U
U101y1]yUU
y]y0yy
y1T1Ux
UT]yy
]yUyUU
]y]UUyY]x
UTUy0UyUUUy101--11011-1-
-11UUT1T1)
aU110
U\y1yTU0
Uy]y]T11-0
U]y]U11Q1-
y]y1yUUy
y0UyU
]yxy]
UUUy11yU1U0---0U1-01-0
-110UUU11111
y1yP11P1
}xUU0y]x1yU
Uy]y]y0yU
]yU}UTU
y0110-
T1U11U10---
U1y1UUU10U1P-
y]yx1yy0y
y]UTy11-11TUT
)UUy1
]UUUUUU
U1y11U11-,U1y1T1111-
U1,11
TU1UT11U1111
y]yTU
]yy]y
U01U0y1yU
UUy]TUy
yy]yUy
Uyy]yyU]yy1yU]x
0U0-1110U1y1T1U
11-0-0-1UUy1UUU1y01P1P1
1y]yy]
UyUT1Q01y1y]UU0y
UU]yUYTy
y]yY]y
y]yY]yUU0y1U
Q10U1UUU0U110-
U101-11U10y1x11T111U1
111-1
U0y1U10Uy1
y]yUU]
Uyx]yU
yUU1U10-1T1y1y0
UU11T1-
01-1--011y1y1UUU10Q0-T10-
U1--1]
]UUy0U,1y10
]y]yy
y]yy]
]yx]y
]y]y]
1y1U01--1x11yy1UUYU011-
U1U01Q1
Ty1yUU1y0U1U11U1Q1
y1yy]y1-T1
yUTUyY
UTU1T1-0UU
1T110yUUU1U,-1U011-01T1UU10yUU11-010-01T
UyUyx1
]yy]y
UT1yUU1U
0UUU0
1U0U1U01U1--010U
U0U1U0U1T1-11U111
y]Uy]yy1UT
yy]yy]UUy1U0--0
yTU1x1UU1U1U
UUy1UU10-0111P1,U0
}]U0]yUU1T]U]y
1|1y]yU
y]UUU0U1U01UUy1y11T1y1x
1T111U0U1y0yUUUT11U1T-T111U10
]xy1yy
y]y0yUy
T1UUU]y101UUy0U-]
]U11-0y]yUy
UUUU11Q011111-0111
yUy1yUT1-TUy1y
111-]
1U1T1yUyyUT1T111(U111U0Q0UUU1U
yy1y]y0yUUy]
]y]y]
y1y1U
y]yy1T1yU1111-1
UU011y1y11UU1111T
10U0111111P1
]yUx]
yUTy01-0yUUTy
UT11Q0yy0UUU01U01U10U1U11Q0U0U1-
]y0U]UUy]y
Uy]y]
11UUy1
U1UUU1U0UU]UUT11111T1UU101UU01U11-
]yx]yx]
0-T]y
UU]yU
y11y1T1yUUyUU1U
U,U1yU0U1T
1UUU1P
Uy1y1-U]yy0
0y1y]
1y1U11yU
y1y111-01y01y1U10Uy1T
y]yy1xU
0--0]
yUUUU]
-1-1U-]
UU010yy]yy\
U1UUU1T11UU1T1
]yUUUy1y0UT
UUU-1
1U1U1yUyy]yUU1-
1T1y1y0y1TUU11
UT1U1yU
UT-T]yy]
Uy]yUUU
Uy1y110y]y
]yy1U0-
1U1UU1U11y10U
yU\Uy
]y0QT
y11y11yTUTUU
U1yy]UUU11
U]T11U1y
y]yy1y1--0
TyU0y11y1T1)-
UT11TUUUy1y0yU
P1Uy]y
UTZy1U1
0UU11UTy
,10U11y1T1y1-T
1yy0yUUU1T11Q1x1y0
T10U1U1y
1yy11U0
Q11y11UUUUU01U
U01T]
y]Q01110U0-U0UU1U1U0-11
-1-U10yU
y1U1U1
-1y1-T1y
]yUy0-
T10yU1y0UT
y1x1]U1U0y11y9U,U0UT1,10-
11y]y]
101-1U1y11UU1y1y1T--1-
]11T1T-T-
1-T1-1--
1yU1UU
-11U11Uy]y
y]UUT---T101U0
U1yUyT
1-1-0-T1
1U11U1--
]yUy01--10y1U1UUT1yy0U
U01T-11,
-1T11Y11
-0U1y]yyUU1-
1T1U01UUU1x
UU1--1-
-y11T1-1-
1U1U1
yUYU0-
U1y11y10UUyUU1
11T11U1
111--
-111111-
T1UUyUy10-
U0U011TUUUyY1T
1y11UY1T1
U11-1--
0U11T101U
-111U1U1UUyYy1--01
-0-11--
-0-1,U1U1U
-11T1TUU0y1y10U
y0yUx
0-11--]-
U0-01101
-U011U1UT
Uy1y1
1U]U1U1U101-01-
-011U01y1y0y1U,-0-
UUTyU
1y-10-0-y1T
0U0--
U01y1y1y1T
xyy]yxUUU
UY111
1-0-1-
-1-111y1yUU1-
Uxyx1y]
UUUU-0y111
0U11y1T
yTy]y1TUT
]1U011U1-
,-1-0U10y1U,-0U
Uxy]y
yTyy0U0U]
1Y1Y11-
1Q01y1T1-
UxUx1x1-,U]
11U111U
T1T11U111-
y]y]xyUU1T1-0
-T1TUU0-
xyyUTUT1P1-
1-111-
-0111y1U
TUUx1T1P-1,1
Y110U1-
-0U11U10--
y]yx]yUxyTUU11-0-1-
1-TU11-1-
-11-T1U1-
Uxy]y
yUy1x1T-0-01Q1-0]
0U11-0
T1T10-
--1,1-
Uy\yxUUT11U
0-,--0
1-11,U-
T-0111,-1
y]yxU1x1U01-0U-1-0-
U11-0-
1-,U0U1M
yUyxy101P11110-1-
--0-1110
--0-0-1-0Q1-0
yxy\yy]xUy10U11-011-0---
--01T1-
-1-01U
Uyy]xy1yTU0U,U1P1T
--,1TU
--0U11-
-1,11U,U
y\yyUyx1y11-011-1-1-P
(U-yTy]
1-11T
-0-1-01111T
Uxy]y
Tyx1y0U0-
U-01U0-1
01x1yT]
,-1011-
-0-1101P1-,
yTyUUUT1-T1T101-0-
T1Q0y0-U0
-011U1111-
yxUx1T111-1U1-1-,U--
Q0U1-T1P10
1P1P1T1)
Uyy]yTyUy1y0U0Q10101-0
Q0-T-,
Q1T1111111
UUTy01-U
T1-1-,--
-0-1101U1T
yTyUxUUTy0U1T
--0--
-1-0-
-01-01U101-1
0y1x1x1T1Q01,U
U10U111P1Q11-
UU1-Y-
Q0-111U11T
y1x1y1x1UTU,U1P1T111P11101P1Q0Q0-Q0Q-T--T1-T-1
11U0U0111
1t1x-0QUT-U1,U0UUQTU11x1yTUUTy0yy0y10y1T-1P1Q,
P1-0111U11
y0u1xUTUTy0yyUy]y
]y]xyyUxUxyTy0y1
T11T1101
0-y0yQxUUUyy]yUy
yUxUyyUxy1xUxU
111T1
1--1111T11
U1T110U-x1xUy
xUx1y0yQ0y
0-0Q1--
T-1P-10-1UyUy]y]y
UxyTPUUTy1y
Q1-0-0
0--0-UU
yUU1Q0yTyx]
-0-0--
yTyTy
TyTPTyT
xy,yy
TyUyUx
yUxuxU
yTytyT
yUyTuT
xUxu0y]
UxUUty
xUuTQU
UyTUUx]
y-x-0
yTu,y
UyUxUP]-0yyy]y
yUUTyU
-x1T1
TyxuTy
yTU-0Q10-T
1T-x1
1T]U-
yxUyTy
UyTU,
P1T-T11U
]y]U]U
xUy\yUxuUy
11Q0U
U-U01-1U0
UxyTyx
Tyy1P-0Q0-1T
ey]101y1U10U
UyyTytU
UU0-1
yTyyUx
1U,Q0Q0y]
TyxUxy
U1U1-
xyUtUT
U,)0Q
UUxyyy
yxyTyT
U-U,1U
yTyTyTy
yUyUxy
UT-(U-
UxyxuU
y1111
xyTyT
y-M-0Q
UQ0U,Q
y-T-TU
1T-1T
UP10QU
y-T-,
tU-U,
y1P1U
UU1-1T10yxU
ytUuy
1yUUx-Q]xy
Ut(tTy
-UTyUTyUx
Q-,1-
Ty1PUQ0L1T
y]y111
1-0-Q
yUUUUy
1-1-T
Uy1TU1T
--0-11,U
]U,-1y-
-0U11T1U,1P11
Q11T11110Q1P-L
1-y10
U11U1U1-1,)U,(
Q--1x
-01y1UT11P1P),Q
L10U-
--1U1T1y11U,U,1P
,1T1y0y1y]y]U]T
Uy]y1yTyxyTy]
-011UU
Y1U0-0-P),
--1T-1T1T1T1T-1T1T1U
U01T1U-0U,
U1T]y1Uy11U-L0-P,
-0-01UU]yUYUT1P1,L-
U1UUUUU1U1,1-L-PP(
1,1U11U11T1Q0Q1,)
1111-0--1-0U1101Q1,U,(Q
-10U11
,U-,U
T1U111,-
T1U11-
1]U]U1
-11111--
01U10
1U1y1-
-1-T11-T1110-1-U
T1111-0Q0b
-U10U0Q011yT11U1U10U1011U10U0U0
1TUU11y1x
y1y]UU
y1y0y1yUUUTU
0-0101U
y10y1y9y9y]
y]y]xUy1x1
1U0U1y1y1y
y9yYU1U01U]
-0-111
11111-1
-1-0U11y9y0U11U1U11T11
}UyUx
Q01T11-
U110-
yUyy]y0
]yUxy1
]y1T1
-----1U
-0--1
Uy11yy10
-11--,
-110-
y0y11Q
y]yU0UT-
Uy]y10U1
]yT1x]UUU--
UU1y1T11
]y1y1011-
]yUy1y1U0
-0-1-
T1Q--
]y1yUU1,
yUy0y
-0-0-
]yYUU1T
Uyy1T-1
y]y11-
]xUy0U0
Q0-0-
y]U11-
,1-1-
]yUU1T
UT1y1
-0-1-
--1-,-
y]yy1U111-
--0-1
]yy10-1U1--
]y1U]
]U1-]
]1U11
P1-1-
U1U--
1-111
11T1-
-1-1,-
U1111
---1--
-011-
11]1-
P110-
1-11T-
--1-a
-010-
-11U0-
-110-
0U1--
--110
-011-
-101-
]]11-
-1-1-
U11U1111U1-1111U-11111111111-1-
]U]U]
1y9y1
-111T
-010-
T111-
,111-
1]111
10U0U01T11T1T1011T1110-1-0-1,U--
1-11111111
-01U1
U]U8U1U1011U0UU01U0U-1-,U-
11U1111U11--
-1101111T110111-11T11T
-01U10-11U1111P1-,
11U111-0--
0--0-1-0-11U1-01U10-10U
1T-1,1-0-1
--0---
P-,M,
,1-,-
0-111-0110U1111010-0-111-010-1-
T-(P-(-,
M0P1,
,-,-,
-----
-1---
,M0,-,
Q(-,-
Q(-P-
L,Q(-,Q(
(P(P(
--111U1
1U111-
-1-1U1
1U1U11,1--,
1U1111--0-1-0Q0Q
P)0Q0-T-0Q0-,1P
)-,-,
11U01T101]
81U10110-10
------,
-0---
-11U1
911-11
11U11-
]U1U1-11
11U1--
1111-1
]11111111-
1-1-1]
U111111
1U9U11]11U11-
11111
9U911U1U1
T1T10U0
9yUY1111-1-
Q(-0P1P1P(-,
-1,0Q
P10U1,P1
]]9]11-
1T-T-0U,10QT,-T-
0U1T1,U0-,
11----
--115]
P0-T-0Q0Q
Q1P0-
Q01-T1,T-
P1T1U
9111--
0Q0-0Q(
P),U,
Q01U0U-T
9111111--
9]]ZU1
0-,-,1
Q0-,1P
T-T-T-0
P1)T-
1-111U11U1--
P0Q0-0-,P
1T1Uy1Y1-
110-1P1-T
-111U111-
111----
0-,Q0,U,
y1UUT1-T-1P
1-11U1-
--1U9]
,U,1,-,UU
1T1T1xU01P0-(,
11-111-
UUUUU101Q0U
]U1111-
1111-
11]1]
101T10U1T-1P
9U-11111
-111-
U1U11T1T1-T
11U11T
1111-
UT11P11-T0-
U1T11T1P1-
111U01P
U01T--
1T1Y]
U11--
9U1U9U
-,U0y
]U11-
,U1U0111
T111-
1U11]
111U-
P-,-0
]U1111-]
-111U1y]U]
111U1
-01U1
1U111
11U1U
--11U1U-
-111U
9--119
9U111111U]
p644-2
ftsTitleOverride
Modern Drama in Britain and the USA (page 2)
ftsTitle
The Glass Menagerie.Tennessee Williams achieved his first major success in 1944 with this portrayal of a Southern family living in reduced circumstances. The drama centers round the efforts of a frustrated and domineering mother to persuade her rebellious son to find a 'gentleman caller' for her crippled daughter. Illustrated here is a scene from the 1950 film version.
Modern Drama in Britain and the USA (2 of 2)
Britain after 1945
The aftermath of World War II was a time when people wished to put the horrors of war behind them and look with optimism to the future rebuilding of society. However, a decade later many young people felt that the ideals of that postwar period had not been fulfilled and, by 1956, the year of the Suez debacle, optimism began to be replaced by anger. In London that year the innovative Royal Court Theater put on a new play by a then young and unknown dramatist, John Osborne (1929- ). This play, Look Back In Anger, seemed to many to express their own pent-up feelings of anger and frustration. The play, with its hero, Jimmy Porter - tagged the 'angry young man' - has subsequently been seen as a turning-point in the history of the modern British theater.
The success of Look Back in Anger prompted a new generation of writers to use the theater to make statements about themselves and their society. The Royal Court Theater was instrumental in furthering the development of new writing in the aftermath of Osborne's success. Plays by Arnold Wesker (1923- ) and others produced fresh images of predominantly working-class life for predominantly middle-class audiences. Their plays, often centered around domestic life, were sometimes referred to as 'Kitchen Sink' drama.
The Royal Court continued to sponsor and encourage new writing, notably that of John Arden (1930- ), whose brilliant and original play Serjeant Musgrave's Dance was first performed there in 1959. Of the new but equally talented group of writers who emerged in the 1960s it was perhaps Edward Bond (1934- ) who made the greatest immediate impact. His second play, Saved (1965), caused an uproar by depicting scenes of savage urban deprivation and representing the stoning of a baby on stage. The furor caused by the play was a major factor in hastening the abolition of stage censorship in 1968. Bond's subsequent plays explore complex social and political issues with the ultimate objective - one which he shares with Brecht - of provoking social action.
Some dramatists, unlike Brecht and Bond, avoid creating plays which seem to have a clear social message. The work of Harold Pinter (1930- ) steadfastly refuses to fit any particular classification, although some critics have linked his early plays The Birthday Party (1958) and The Caretaker (1960) - with their use of banal repetition, pauses and colloquial speech - to the Theater of the Absurd. Pinter's plays were successful in the commercial as well as the subsidized theater, as were the black and anarchic dramas of his short-lived but equally popular contemporary Joe Orton (1933-67), such as Loot (1965) and What the Butler Saw (1969).
Powerful and original dramatists who have emerged in recent years include Caryl Churchill (1938- ), Howard Brenton (1942- ) and David Hare (1947- ). However, in terms of popular appeal, two British playwrights - Tom Stoppard (1937- ) and Alan Ayckbourn (1939- ) - stand out from the rest. Stoppard's inventive early comedies Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead (1966) and The Real Inspector Hound (1968) respectively use characters from Shakespeare's Hamlet and parody the conventions of the stage thriller. In Jumpers (1972) and Travesties (1974) Stoppard explores philosophical ideas with considerable wit and verbal skill. Although termed comedies, Ayckbourn's plays of middle-class suburban life - notably Relatively Speaking (1967) and The Norman Conquests (1974) - are often almost painful in the sharpness of their observation. An increasingly somber note, with undercurrents of violence, can be detected in his later work.
The USA
It was not until after the end of World War I that a distinctive voice was heard in American theater. It was then that the young Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953) began to make his mark. The characters in O'Neill's plays are always seemingly motivated by their struggle to find some significance in life, and O'Neill himself was never afraid to experiment with new and diverse dramatic techniques. The Hairy Ape (1922) used Expressionist techniques, while other plays were influenced by Symbolism, Realist conventions and the stream-of-consciousness technique. Mourning becames Electra (1931) was the first play in a trilogy based on the Oresteia of Aeschylus. Two late works, The Iceman Cometh (1946) and the posthumously-produced A Long Day's Journey Into Night (1956), established O'Neill's international reputation.
After the end of World War II American theater welcomed two young and highly talented dramatists whose work was to dominate the American stage for the next three decades: Tennessee Williams (1911-83) and Arthur Miller (1915- ).
Williams's first play, The Glass Menagerie (1944) - a painful family drama - was an enormous success. Later successes include A Street Car Named Desire(1947), which explored themes of sexual obsession and violence, and Cat On A Hot Tin Roof (1955) a study of a family in disintegration, with Freudian undertones. That Williams had his finger on the pulse of popular interests and preoccupations is demonstrated by the fact that all three plays were subsequently made into successful films.
Critical acclaim for the work of Arthur Miller has by and large been reserved for his early work, notably Death of a Salesman (1949), and A View from the Bridge (1955). The strength of these plays lies in their closely observed depiction of the lives of ordinary Americans, whose desire for material reward is in conflict with a need for spiritual renewal and personal happiness. The Crucible (1952) - a dramatic account of the Salem witch trials of 1692 - is a parable of the anti-communist witch-hunts in America in the 1950s.
Apart from the not inconsiderable output of Williams and Miller, little original dramatic writing has emerged from the United States since the end of World War II. The first full-length play by Edward Albee (1928- ), Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962) - the bitter and often savage story of a marriage in crisis - raised high hopes that a new and rich talent had been unleashed. However, with the exception of the work of Sam Shepard (1943- ) and David Mamet (1947- ), American dramatic writing remains largely in the doldrums.
IRISH DRAMA
The development of modern Irish drama is inextricably bound up with the growth of Irish Nationalism and the founding of the Irish Free State in 1921. The poet W.B. Yeats was instrumental in encouraging a genuine dramatic renaissance based at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin. The Abbey Theatre aimed to foster a distinctively Irish - as opposed to British - drama. Yeats's plays drew inspiration from ancient Celtic mythology and oriental theater; often heavily symbolic, they use verse and balletic movement. J.M. Synge (1871-1909), drew directly on the author's experience of peasant life on the isolated Aran Islands off the west coast of Ireland. Synge wrote plays as linguistically rich as any since the Elizabethans. His most famous play, The Playboy of the Western World (1907), caused riotous scenes in Dublin and America because it was thought by some to belittle and mock the ideal of Irish womanhood.
After World War I and Irish independence, the Free State made a decision to grant a subsidy to the Abbey Theatre. Many fine plays have since been performed there, not least Shadow of a Gunman (1923), Juno and the Paycock (1924) and The Plough and the Stars (1926) by Sean O'Casey (1880-1964).
More recently the Northern Irish playwright Brian Friel (1929- ) has become an influential force in British and Irish drama. His plays probe the social, political and religious divisions between England and Ireland, and in particular the unrest in Northern Ireland.
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM
* EXPERIMENTAL THEATER
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
111111--
1111U
--1--
11-1-
1111-1--1
1U1-1
--11-
1-1-1
-1U11
1111-
1111-
11-1--
1111111
-1-U1
-1111
-111-11U
1Y1U1U
11-11--
-11--1
11-1U1
-11-11
--11-
-Y1-11
--111
,1---
1-111
111--
--1111-11-
-1-11
11-11-1
1U11-111--11-1-
1--1-
--11-1-
1111-111-11U111
1-11-1-11
11-1-
-1U11U
U11111111
-1--1111-11-1-
111-11111--11
1--Y11
11U1111-1-1-11-11
--11-
1111--
-1-1111U
--1-1U
-1-111-1-1-
1)1--111-11
1-111-1-11
---1--,
111-111--
-11111-111U
1111-
1----
1U1-1
1-111-11U
--,1-11-
1-11U1-11-1-
111111-
1-U11U1--1
]111-1-11
-1-11
U-11-1--
y1111
1U111--11-11-1
11111
11-1111-1U
1--1U
1--1-
y1-11
1-1111-
1Y-111
-1111
11-1--11-1
11-11U1-1-1Y
-1111-
11-11
11U11
1-1-1
11-111-Y1
U11U1111
-U1U1
1U11-1-
111111U1-
11-11-
-1111U
-11-1
-111-1
1U11-
1-1--11
-11U1
1U111
-1U1111
-11-111
-1-11
---11-1--1---
1UU-11111
1--11
111-1-1
1111-11-1-
1U11-1111-1111111
1111U111-1
-1-11U1-
--11U1
U1U11
1111-11-1111
11111-1
-1-1-111111-1-
-1-111-11
-1Y11-
-111-U1-1
11-1U
-11U1U1
11-1-
1-1--1U
1--1--
1111111--1111
-1-11111111--
1U111
11111U111-1
Y-1--
1-111-
1-111
1U1U11111
-1111
-1-1-
-11--11
-11-1
-1U111
11-111y-1
-111U
-11-11
1-1-11-1111-
1111U
-1-111111-
11-1U
--111
-1-11111--1
]-1111--1--1-1
-1-111-
-1---1111-111U1-1U
111--1U11
1111-
-1-11--
11111
11111U11--1-
U1111
11-1-
1-1-11-
11111-11-1-
11-1111U1-
U11U1U11
1111-11
U1U11-
U1-1-
11U1-1
-111-1
-1111
1-11-1--111
1111-
-1-1U
--11-
11-1-
-11---
-1-1-11-111
-11111
-11U1-
11--1
-11-1U
---11
U1111-1-
11111
1111111
1-1U11
U-Y1-
1-1-1
111-1-
11-Y11
1-11111-1-11
1-1-11U111-1
11--1-
-1111-
1-11--
----1-
11U11
11--1-
1111-
11U11U
-1111M11-1U111-
1-1-11
-1-1U
-1-111
-1111-11
1-111-
-111-
-1-1-
1111-
U11U1
U11-1
-1-11--11U
-111111-
1-1--
Y111-1111
-111111U
11-U1-1U11U11111--
U1--11-
-1--1-11-1--1-
1-11-
1-11-111
1U111-
11U11
-1111-
11-1111
1U-11-1U11-1Y
U11-1
U1111U11
1-1-11-1U
111-111
U111111
1-111
11--1
1--11-
-111-1
11-1-1
11U1-11-
1y111-1-1
1-111--
--11U111
111-111U1-
1-1,11--
-1U111-11111-111
----,
-1-1-
--1---1-
111--1-111-
-U111
1-1-1-11-1-
1--1-11
--111-
-11-1-
11--1-1--11
111-11
11U11U
11-111U
---1-
1-1U1
1111-
1111----1-
1U-11
U1111
U1U1-1--1
1111111-1-
-11--
1-1--0
1U1111-
U1-Y11
11U-1U
--1-1
-11-1
U111U1
11-11
1--1-
-1----
-1--1-
-11U1-1
-11-1
1-1111
-1---
1-11-
1-11--
111111--
1---,--
-1-1-1-
1-11-
^111-
111U1
1----
-1--1
-,----1-
1U111-
111-1-
11-1-
111-1
1--11
-111-
1U11-
-1--11-1,-1-1
11111-1U
y11U-
1-11-
----111
1111-1
-1-11
-1U11-1
-1U1-
1111-1-
1--11
-1---
-111-
11U1-
-11-1y
-1-11
-111-1
-11-1
-111-1
-1-11
--11-
-,-1--
--11-
11-1y
y111-
1-111-
1-1111
-1-1)--
---1-
-11-11-1--
11111-
1U1-11-
11-1--
---1111-
U1-1-
11--,--
-1---
1--1-
11U11-1
1-U1U11-1
-1---
11U1--1
-1-111
---,111111
1----
11U1-U-
111111-1
-11U1U
-111-
11U11111
11U111U11-1
--1-1111
-11-1-
11-11111
--,--
-1-111
1-1--
--1-U--11-
11-11
111-1-
--1-1
-YU1-
1-1111
-111U1
-1-11-1
1-11-
-1---
1-11ZU11
-11-1U1-
111111-1-1
--,1-
1U1U-
1-111-
--1-1
1-1111U
11-1-1
-111-1
-1U1-
-1-11111--1
--1--1
1-1-1
1111-
111--111
U111-1-
U11U111
11-111
-111-111-111U1U1
11-1U1
1U1-111
-1-1-
-1UZ1--
1-1-1111-1-11-11
1-111Y1
111-U1
U1-1-11-1-111
-]-111-
111--
1111-1y11-
-1-11-1
1-1U111-
11---1
11-1-1111-U111
11111-1
11-1-
--)--
1-1U1
-11-1
--1111-111-
11U11
--11-11
11-1U
U111U
111-11-1
-1--11-
-11--
-1-1-
11111-1111
-1-11-11
---Y11-
---,1-
1-1-1
-11--1111
1U111-1
11-1-
1--1-
1111-
Y111111U1
111-11111--1--
--11-1-
1-11-
1-11111
11-1-
U1-1-U
U111-
-111-
1-11-1-
1-11--
U1111-
1111-1
1111U11111---
1-1111-
1111U1-
U11-011
1-11111--
Y1-11
11111
11-1-1P-1
-11U1-
111-11-
-1-1U
-1-1-
-11U1Z
11U11
11-11U1
11-U1
-111-11--
-11--1
-1U1U11
-111-1
1U1111--1M
11111
-1U111
-1---
111-1-
111--11-
1111111U
U1-1-
111-1-1---
-111-11--
-111--
11111-1]1
1-1-11
U1,-1
--11-1-11
-111--
1111-1
-111-
11-11U1
-1U1U11
1--11
1111111
--11-11-
11111-
111111-
--111111y
U11-111-
-1-1U1-
-11U1
11--1-
---1yU
-11111--111
-111-1-
11-111111
U11-111111
111-1-11-
1-1-11
1--1-
11-111111
--Y-1
-1111--1
11U11-11---
111-11-1-
-1--11
-11U111
U11111--
11111-
1111-
--1-1
1y111U1
11-1-
1U1-1
1U11U11
-1-11
-1-1-
-1U11
-111-
-111-
-11-11
1-U11
11y11
11111
-Y1-1-
-1-11-1
1U1-1
-11111
-U1111
U111-11U11-1-
-1-1-11111
11-1-
1U11y
11-111
-1U11--
-111-
11y11
-1111
1UUU1-11
11U1111
-1-1U1U1U111
111-1
11U11-
1-1-111U1
111U1
1111U11
-1111111-11--1U1
-1111
1-111
11-11
UU11U
1111-11
1U11-
1-y11
111U111UUU1-
1U11U111-11111
y11-1-
11U11111U
1U1-1-
111111111111111
11111
U11U11
-1-11--
U1-111
]U111
11-11U11
11111U1-1--1-U1-1111
111111111111-1-11
-1U11
11-1-11
1111-
1-1111-
-1-11U
--11U
1111-11U1-111
111111-11111U1
111-1U111
1111-1
1U11U111
-U11U11-
1111-11U
11U1U
1-1--1111--1-1
-1-1-
111111
-11111-11-
-111U1-1U1111U11
U111-11-1-111-1-
U1111-
--11U
1U1U11
1-1U111-1-111)1--111111
11U11111U11111-1-1-11-11-11111
1111-
11U11U
111-1-
--11-1-1-111-U111U1111U
1-01U
U111111
1-111
11U11-1U
U1111y1111111111-1-
-1-111-1-111
U1011-11
111-1
1-111-1
U11-1-
111y1
111U11-1111-111-111---1111-01-111-
----10--1-1--y1)Y1111-11
11-1U1-
-111-11-1-111-11-1-
1-1-1-1-1-1-1-11
111111-1-1--1-
1-)-1-1
1-11-1
11111-1-
1111-
1-111
--1-11-11
-11-11--,
111--1-11-
U1-1-111-111-1
1U11-U1
11-11U111
1-1-1-
1---1-
,1--1-
-111---111-
111U11U111--1U
-11111U11111-
1-111
-11-1-1-1U111--11--
---11-11-
1--1-
11-1U
111111-111
1-111
1111111U
111-1U11-11-
U1-1-1-
-1-01-11-1
11-1-1-1
1-1111U1
11-11-1-
111-1
1-1-1
-11U11111-1U
U11U11-1-11U1-U
1-1-0--1
-,-11
1)11-
1-,----
)1-0-1-1-11
1111-
--Y1U
11-1U
-111U11Q
1-1U1
-1-11-1111111--
--111
11--11-11111--
-1-1-
1--,1
1U1-11
11111--11
1-1111-1U1
--111-11-1111U111--11-0-
-1-11-11-
--1-,U-11-
111--1
1111U1U1
-11-11111
1111--11-1
--111-
---1-11-
-1-1-1
-1111--
1111-1-
1U11U
,1-1-1-11--11-
111-1-
11-11-11111-
P11-1111-1
-1-11
-11111-11-U111-11-11--1-11
11-1-
11-1-
1--1-1-
1--1-
-1111111
-11-11-111-1-11
-1-11-1
1--Y1
1--1-
111-111-1-1-11-11-11111-
1-11-1
1--1-11-1
11-11-11-11--11U
--,1-
1--1-
1111-1-
1-11111-11-
-111-11-1
1--11
1-11-1
11-11
1111-11-1-
----1-
---11-1
-111--
1-1-,
11-1U
--1-1-
-1--,-
1,-1-1
-111U
U-1-11
11-1-
-1-1-
11111-
--1--
-11-1-1
-1U111
-111-1
1-1-1
1-11-1-
--P---
111-1-
-,---
11-11
1U111
-1-111-
U11--
1U111-
-11-0
-11-1-
---1-
--1-1
U-,11-
-1--1
11-1-
-1-1-1---
111-1-11-
-1-1-
-111--
111,11-
-1-0-
UU1-1-
---1-
-11-U
-1--1
--1111-11
-1-1-11---
-11--1---
1-111-,--1--
11---
1111-
11-111
1-1-11
1--1-
---1-
--1-11
11--1-11
-1-1-
--11----1-1-1-1---
--11-
111-U1-11111-11-1-1-
-1-11
U--1-
-1---1
1-11-1-
-1-1U1-1-11
1-111U111U
1----
11-1-
1111-1111--11111
-,-1--1
-1-11
-111U
--,-,
-1--1
1-11-11-1U
1-1-111U1-1111--11U-
1-1-111--
U1-1-1
-11-1-
11-1-1-
1111U
U111-111111
-11-1
1-1-1-
1-11---
1----
-111-
-111-
1--1-1-1-1
11-111111-1-11-111-11-11-1U11
1111--1-1-11-11
11-11
Y-0-111-
1111-
11-1-
-1-1-1-11111111--1-11-11-1111U
--1-1
1--1-
1)-1-1--11--
1-1-1
-111--
11-1--1
-1-1-11111111111-111--
U11111111111-
-11--1-
1-11-111-111--
-1-1-111--1-
1-1-111-11-11--
U1-11111
p646-1
ftsTitleOverride
Modern Poetry in English (page 1)
ftsTitle
W.B. Yeats outside his study at his Rathfarnha home in Ireland.
Modern Poetry in English (1 of 3)
Modern poetry includes both 'difficult' poetry and poetry that is more directly accessible to the reader. The difficult poetry is obscure and highly allusive in the Modernist manner exemplified by T.S. Eliot's The Waste Land and Ezra Pound's Cantos. The more accessible poetry - though not necessarily easy to understand - belongs to a tradition which does not break so abruptly with previous poetry.
The subject matter of this more accessible poetry may be just as much concerned with modern urban experience, and its language may also be colloquial and casual rather than self-consciously 'poetic', but it retains the traditionally rational structure of argument and does not relate to the same extent as Modernist poetry to a wide range of cultural reference. Modernity, in other words, is not exclusively a possession of the Modernists - though for a time, especially in the 1920s, it seemed rather like that.
Yeats and modern Irish poetry
W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) is regarded by many as the greatest of modern poets writing in English. His early poetry has a wistful, dream-like quality, tinged with nostalgia for a mythical Ireland. However, his involvement with the early phase of the Irish Nationalist movement and, in particular, with the founding of a national theater, caused Yeats to become disenchanted with this atmosphere of 'Celtic Twilight'. He discarded his elaborate early vein and opted for a plainer and more muscular style. The spare yet tragically powerful 'Easter 1916', a poem which meditates on the abortive Nationalist uprising in Dublin, is an example of the new style. Yeats's later poems, including such masterpieces as 'Sailing to Byzantium', 'Among School Children' and 'Lapis Lazuli', brood on the problems of growing old and the difficulty of reconciling art and life.
After Yeats there has been a remarkable renaissance of Irish poetry, including such names as Patrick Kavanagh (1905-67) and Seamus Heaney (1939- ). Heaney, while far from being an imitator of Yeats, shows the same capacity to deal realistically with the facts of a turbulent Ireland while seeing them in the perspective of history.
Auden and the poetry of the thirties
W.H. Auden (1907-73) is a political poet of the 1930s who became a Christian liberal in his postwar work. In his earlier phase, with fellow Oxford poets Louis MacNeice (1907-63) and Stephen Spender (1909- ), he wrote prophetic verse from a left-wing standpoint (often in updated ballad forms) intended to shake suburban readers out of their supposed indifference to the threat of Fascism, as well as intellectually more exacting poems on fashionable themes such as Marxism and Freudian psychology. Later he adopted a more relaxed manner and expressed more orthodox views. Prolific, and technically one of the most inventive and skillful of modern poets, Auden is at his best in poems that use the Modernist's colloquial ease to express acceptance of humanity's imperfect nature.
Hardy and Lawrence
Poetry in English has ceased to be exclusively 'English' and London-based. Two outstanding poets (perhaps better known as novelists) - Thomas Hardy and D.H. Lawrence - are regional rather than metropolitan. Hardy's position is that of a man divided between the emotional values associated with his birthplace and the national culture of the city. Out of this dual experience he develops an individual blend of understanding and detachment. His re current themes are loss of faith and stoic acceptance of mortality, but he is also a humanely ironic and satiric poet.
In Lawrence's poems, the regional influence is to be heard in his down-to-earth tone of voice. This is an effective means of deflating pretentiousness, while allowing sympathy for forms of experience that are repressed by modern materialism to come through. In 'Snake', for example, he conducts a dialogue between two aspects of his self: 'the voices of my accursed human education', which tell him to kill the snake, and his deeper feelings which warm to the dark vitality of the snake, compelling him to recognize it as 'one of the lords / Of life'.
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1U11:
^1U1-1
1^b1
1111^
1111-1
11U1-
^1111
11111
1-1:U
:^ U--1
:1:V1
-1-1U
-1^^111
6U1U11
:1U11
11---
-1-1-1
:^:^ b
:1U11
11-:U
1-111
U1111
11111
1111-11
1U1111
:1U1U1
61U11
1111U
11-:
11111U
-1111U1
11111-1
1-111
1-1111U1U
:U2]^
:U11U1
^1111
:1111
:11U1
1-1-b
:-111
bU^ : b
11U11U
-1U1:
^:U:U11U111
^1U1:
1-111-
1U1U:
:Y111
:-b11^:
-1U111-
111111
-11U:1
U1U11111
1U11111
-111-:U11
1-11-1
]11111 111
^:U11
2-1-1111
11 11
1111U1-^
-1-1U1-11
-:U-111
Y:Y11
--1111-:
:121U
-111-
-11-111
-1111
2^:V:^^
11b Y
^1^1-11
111U1
1-111
1111111111-1
1U1111
111U:
111-:U
2^1U1
11-111U11-1-1
11U11
1U11U1:U1U1
111U1-
-1---11-9
11^1^1
U:Y11-11
:1U1^
-11111
-1111-1
-1^:-
:-11:1-
1111U111
11-11
11- ^1
11U111U19^
12 111
^^6111111-
-1U11
1U1191
:1-::
11^--111
1-1U1U
U11U:
11-11U1
1^1^-11:
11-1-1U1-:
-11U1
1111U
1U1111-1
111-111
-11-1^11
11-11
111-1-U
1-11-11
11U1-1
11-111-
111U11111-
1111:
U11-1
-11U
V1--1^
-1111-
-1-:1
1U1111
1-1-11U
11111
-1-111
111-1-
1U1-111
-1-1-
:11111--
-191U
--1-:
-11-1
:U111-1111U
1-1U1
11-111
-1111
b: 1
11111
11-111U
11-91111
-1-b^
U11111-:
-1--
-1-1111111
11--1
-11-1U111-1-1
11111111-:1-1
1--1U
111^11
bU1112-
1-1-1
U1-11-
^ :Ub
:11-11-11
11-11-111
11-11
1111111U1
-1U--
1--1-1-
11-11
U1111-111
11-1-U
1-1-1111
^:--1
111-1-1111-11-111-9U1
:U111
-1U11
U-1U:
111-1
-1U11-1111-11-
11-1- Y11
111--1
11-11
U1111
-1111-
111-1
111-1
1111-1-1
111-1
111:1
-1--Y:U1
1-11-
111U1-1
111-11-111-111
1-111-
11111^
1U1-
11-11U
1:-1U
-1611
---11
11111111
-1111
:11111
1111-11-1
-11-1U
-1111U11U
1-1U11
U1U1-:
:111-1
1-1-11-1
U11-111111
1111-1111-1111-111-1
^^111
1111-1
-111--1
1111--
1-11111-11-1111
1-11-11
1-1U11
11-11-11-1-1-
11-111U1-
1--111-:
1-111
1--1-11--1-1-
-11111-1111111111
1-11-
1-1-11
11-:U
11-111Y1
11--1U11111
1111-1
1-11--1
-111-11-:1U
11U1-
1-1-1111
1-1-111-1-1:
1-1-11-11
^:U1
:U1-1
Y1-11
1-11111-
:1Ub-11
11-11-
:Y1111-
11111
1-11111-1-1-1-
-1-11
11-11
1^1111U
-1-11
-1-1-1
--1-1
1-1-1
:1U1
-11U1U
11-11U11-111
1--111-1-11-
111111-1-
1-1111
1-11-
-Y1-11-
11-1-1--1:
111-1-1
111U:
111-1
1111:
^^:U1
:11-1--1
111-1-
-1-1-
111-11
-111-
- Y :
111--11
111-1Y-
-11--
^b 11
:^111U1
1111-
1-111U1U
11-1-
1U:1-
:U11-1:
111111-
1-1--
11111
-1-11-1
--11-1
-U111^^
--11-111--Y11
U1-Yb1
1U-Yb
1111U^^
^1^11
1-11-
1-:1-1:1
111111
Y11-1
:--11-
1U1-1
^U11-
Y1-Y
11-1-11Y1-
11-11-
1--111
1-1-1-11
-1-11111--
:-1-1-
111^:
11-11--11
1-1:111^
-:-Y1
-1-1-1-
-1-111
-11-1
--1-Y 1
-1-11:1U1U
:Y-111111-1-U
111111191
:U111^
1-111-
1-1-11-
^11-Y:
11-1-1
-1-1U-
1-1111111-11
1-11--11U1
:1U-Y:
^^1-1--
]-111---
-11--,1-
111--
11--11
--11U
--11U11
-11U11U
111-11-1
1--11U11-1
1-111-
111--1
-11-1-
1-1-1
:--1:
1-Y-11111111-1111
U-1-1
111:U:
1-1-11
-1111-1
--11--
-U1--1U
1U1U11U1
--1U
^U11-:1-
11-1U
11-11U
1-1-11-11
-Y:1111111
1-1-1111
1U11-
1:1-1
^11-1
11-11
1111-
11111
U:U1U
-11-1
1111:
--,-1-1-
11-111
-111U1-1^^
111U1-
-111-1
-111U
-11--1
^11--111
:U1--Y1--
111-:
-11-1:
---11-1
1-111-1-
^^ b :
1-11U
---11--
11--1
^1111
-11:11-1
---1-
1111U
1:11:
11^1U
-1-1:
-11-1
111--1-
1U1U1
1:U-1^
1--11
:1111^1
U1^111
^1-11
-1U:1-
-1111:
11^111
--1-1
1--11U1
-11U11
1:111^
11^:
11-11-Y1
11111^
111--1-
11^11
~:U-1
Y:U1-
:1-1:----
--1111--
-111-
1-1:1-1-1-
11U1-1
-111--1
-1-11^
-1-11
11:U1
-1Y1-
:U:--
:U111
1U111-1
---11U:
11^1-:
--11-
:U111:U1
bV-1:-
1111U
^11U1:11:
^1^11
91--1
-11-1
:1V:
--bU^11
U:U1:
-:1-1
U111U
-1-1U
1U1-1U-
-1U11
1-1--111-
11-1:U1^^^^
-1U:U:1
1-111-
-11-11-
111U::
111:U
-11--
1-1-1-1-:
1---:
U1-1U
:1-1-
-1111
:11U^
:--111
:1-11-1-
-111U
11-111
1-11-
1U1-1
-^Y11
:^1U:
1U::-
:1b^^V
11^:U
::VY:-
1-111
-11-:
:V11^
^^211
^b-1
11-1-
6U11:
1^^ 19
bV1^1
11U:
11:1--
12U11
U11:
:U11:
^1 1^
b111
U11119
-1-Y1:
1-11]-1
1-1111-
-111-1
-11U1
-1111111U1
U11U
U1^1U1
1U11-
111:1-1--1-
:111-111
1111-
V:Y^ ^
:^ 1-1
-b11-
111:U
-1^ :^
1-111
-^U:U
,111^
1-Y1:Y
1-11
^11-1U
1U1--
^1-111--
1U^ b
U1^1Y
^ ---11-
^1U1^
^ f----1
:U^11--
1-1-1
f^^^-
-1--1
--11-
:--1-1
1U--1
-,11-
^11U11
1-1-1
-:-:U
^ b
11-1
-1U-
:U11-
1U2:
^^^b
1 1-1
-1-1-
^1-111
--111111
1-11-
11-1-1-
-11111--1-1-1-11-1-1-1-11-111111-11-1
-111-111-1
p646-2
ftsTitleOverride
Modern Poetry in English (page 2)
ftsTitle
A painting of the Battle of the Somme (1916) battlefield. The poetry of Wilfred Owen sought to describe the devastation of trench warfare just as starkly.
Modern Poetry in English (2 of 3)
Postwar British poetry
If there is an 'English' tradition as such, it may be said to stem from these two writers, continuing through Edward Thomas, Wilfred Owen and Robert Graves to Philip Larkin, Ted Hughes and Geoffrey Hill. Philip Larkin (1922-85) is the chief inheritor from Hardy, and Ted Hughes (1930- ) - the British Poet Laureate from 1984 - from Lawrence.
Larkin combines the provincial and the national in his faithful representations of ordinary life in the 1960s. Like Hardy, Larkin is often regarded as a pessimist, but he is essentially a realist. 'Aubade', for example, is a poem that looks unblinkingly at the inevitability of death.
The realism of Hughes is of a different kind. He emphasizes the brute instinct of the animal world, but sees it as untamable energy in, for example, 'Hawk Roosting' and 'The Jaguar'. The later Crow sequences (1970-72) create a harsh, caricatural mythology, but the purpose is still to explore powers lying outside the safety limits that human beings try to build round themselves.
The poetry of Geoffrey Hill (1932- ) is more problematic; his Mercian Hymns (1971) echo the allusive Modernism of Eliot. This is also true of the leading modern Scottish poet, Hugh MacDiarmid (the pen name of C.M. Grieve; 1892-1978). MacDiarmid sought to reinstate Scots as a medium for serious national poetry. His masterpiece, A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle (1926), is a hotchpotch of lyricism, philosophizing and outspoken commentary on sex, politics and Scottish society. It is nationalist in vein, but also internationalist - as signaled by the inclusion of extracts from the Russian Symbolist poet A.A. Blok. Other modern Scottish poets use Scots less aggressively, or not at all. For example, Edwin Muir (1887-1959) wrote in the received standard form of English, taking local experience as material for universal themes. The best-known Welsh poet is Dylan Thomas (1914-53), whose work is exclusively in English. His is a concentrated, cryptic, highly metaphorical poetry, full of surprising twists given to familiar phrases - for example, 'once below a time' and 'happy as the heart was long' (from 'Fern Hill'). Puzzling, yet stimulating, it is modern poetry at its most bardic, and sometimes extravagantly rhetorical. R.S. Thomas (1913- ), on the other hand, is an English-Welsh poet of a more restrained kind. Religious, yet almost too disillusioned for faith, he writes grimly austere poetry on the decay of Welsh culture.
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
111-11
1111-1
:1111
}11-1
]1--111-1
---1111--11-111-1
1-11-11-
1U111-
-111^
11---1U
-1111U
11-111
:111-
^11--1
111111-
-11U111-11-1-
111-19U
-1-11U
1U11]
111111U
1-1-11-
----1
11111
-11111
1---1-
-11--11U
1111-111
-1-11
19U1U
U11U1Y01U111----
1111--1
1-11U
-111-1-
U111-1]
1U11-1
1-1111
---11U
U111U1-
1U1-111111
91-1-U9U-
11-11
1-1-1-11-11-1-1-11
11--111
1-U11
:1U1-1U1
111--1-
11111
1U1U1:U
1-1-1-1-11--
1--1111-111
11111-11-
11---
111U91
1-11111]1
1-111-11
--11-
111U9
111-1-
9U11U1
-111--
-111--111-
U9:19
11111
--1-1--1
:--11-1-
1111911
1111U
:1]1U11Y1
Y:Y-:
U:U1-1
-1111
--1-9
:-111U
1U1U111
11-11
-1---1-,
:U1U1191111
Y111-1U11-1U
1U111-1-1U
-1---1
:-111-111U11
:1191191U91]11]UU1
:^11U
-1--b
1-1111111
-1U111-1-
11-111-1
111U11
1-1--1-11
11--1-1-11-
------
,-1--
U^1U1
-111-
1---1
---:U
11-:9U
11-1111
:U11-1-
-1-1:11-
11UU1U9
1U:]:Y9
1U191
1111-
-1U1111--
1^1-:
1U11:
11^Y:
11-1^
1U1-:
1-11-9
-1U511-11^
-11-111U:
1111111-
11-11-1---
-1-1111Ub
1U111-
111-11--
:1:U111111U1U1
111U9
111-11-11
111-11
1U1-U1-19
1119]]]b
---11U111
1111U-
-1---
:-111U1-1-1-11-:U111
^ :U111-1111-
11-111
111-1
1-1-1
U1-1V1-U
1:11119
1111U11-,-
1--1-
1--1-1
-1111b
11111111111--11-1]1
11-1
^:111
-1-11
U111111-
11:1-
-1-111U11-
9^:]:
11--111-
:1111-11
Y bU:
11-1--11
:-1U1-111]
]-1-1-
-1U1-1-
U1111119^
911]11
11-1U
1-111
1-,-1
-11U11-
1111-
f^11-11-
111U1:
1U111---
,1U1]
1U: :11
-191U:
-:]11
b11-111
-1:U11
111U1--
1---11
bU111
:1-1-1
19U19
1111191-11
1111-11U
^1:1-111
---111-
5U1]9UY
-,1111-
-1^::
1^111
11--1U
-111-1]
]1-1111111
1-U1111-
-111U
--1111
1111-1-,
-1-11---
-11-11-
1U111U
:-1-11]^]1
11U11
1-1-11-
b^:1Vb
--11-1111
Y111111--1
^::]:
1-1--1
11-111-11-1
-111--
11U1U
---1U111
9U111--111U1-
:-11--
-1-1111
1U1---
1U1-11---
^1111-1
1-11-111-1-
11111
1U1-111-1111-
---:U :1
-U:1--1
11119
1U1-1-
^:^19
9:U9]
1-11--
1U111-11111U1U1
bU1^-
-1-1-
1-11-
-11-1
111-1
111--1U
:--2::
U11--11111-1U11--1
-11-1
:]1::
---1]
1111-
11-1111-U11
1-111
1111-1-1U11111
1-,-1-1-1-
111-1-
11U1-1
11---
----11-
b^1111
1^-111-1-1
U1111-
^9^9^b
---11
1]1-11
-1111
5U11-1111-
1U^:-Y
11---1
1-1-,
--11--
----1111
1111U11111
11U1-
:-Yb^1
^11--1
111-11]b
--,--,
-1111
1-111--
1--11
-1--111
--1-11-111
-111--1
9U111U
-11-1U
]111111-11--111-11
1-11--1
1-1-11
-11--1-
-1-1-
1111---
--11--
1U11U11^
1-1-1
-119-111U111
--111
-111-1-1-11-1
U1111--1-11
--,1-
-1-11
Ub1-1
11U1]1
-11--
1U1-11:
-1---,
111111
1----
19--111-1-11111111--1--111:-
---1-
-1U1U11U
-1:11--
---11--
U-1111^
1--1-
--11111-111111-1-1-1111
U1--U
-11--11]
11119
1-111111--
---1--
-1111-1
1-11-----
-1^:^
--11-
b^--1U1
-11--1
11111-1111-11111U
11-1-
1-1--1-
1-1--
--1111111--
U1-11-1U11
1-1-1
11-111-1
:U:1-
11U11-
-11U1-91
1111-1----
--1-1
1---1
11111-
-1-11-1-1111-111-1-
1111-
1U111-1111U1-
1U1-11
---1--
1111:
--11-
1111--
1^111-
-11-11-1U111111-1-
^111-11
^:U11-
f--11
U1-11
-1-9Z
--111
---1-1]Y
1-191--
-11-1U
-111--
1--111-111U1
1U1191-
-111-
-1]1-
111111--
111U11
11--1
^:U1U11:
1-1--
--111
1-1111
11-111111U1
--11-
1-11-
b^11^
--111U
1b^11
9111:-
111111
1-119
1]111
-11Z
11111--
:1-111-1-1
1U111-1
1U111
11-1111111
1]11U9U111-,1-
U111-1
1191^
1U1111
Y1111
1-1--
1U1111-11-111U
1U1U11
-1111-11
1-11
---11---11-
YbU11
-1111
91911911-
]111-1
U11--
--11-
-11U1
-]1-1--
-111--
]111:
1111-1-
bU111-1-1bU-1-1-
-111U
1U119
1111
1- 1-Y
111U1
9U11]1:
19U1Z
111--
1-1-11
11--11---
9U111-1
-1-11-1-
U1-1-
1U1111
1-1-
-11-1
U11111-19
1U111U:Y
-11U1
111--
111-1Ub
11111
111-1
1111-1
11-11
----,
-----
111-11-11]
1-111-1--:
---11
--11-1]1U
1-111-
--119
1U11-
U11U1
b1--1-
11U1-1
1-111-111U
1111U
11-11b
:-1--
11--111-1
111-1--
U1:1-1
^1-9^
11U11
1111U1
1111-1-11
U1911]
111^9
:11b
-11111U1
11111-
1----
9U1U11-
-1U11
-1---
-1--1
11--1
----1
1U111
---19U
19-U9
91U1-U
9ZU1-1
11U11-
U1111]9
1---111U1U
1U911 b^
1----
b-1bU1-
1-11-
111---
-9:U^]1
1--11U111U
-1-91-:
:1---1
11^1:
:U119
-111--
11-1111
:-11111
11-1111
111--
11U1U1
:1-1:
b^-1-111
-1111
911-1U11
91UU9
-11-11
11]^9
11111
:-1 b
1U11-
-1U1]
^b:^:
-11--1111U11U1
U1U1--
--11-111-
1--15U1-9Z^b
U9-11-1
-1]19
1U111
-1111-
111119
91--11-
:91U19
111U9
-111-Y
U1111-1111U1
-1--11
111--1
--11-1
^:^1:
11U111U
--111
1-111U1-1
bU11]
-1U11-
-1U11-
1U1111-111
1U11---1
1U11111-1111
-111U1U
1-1-1
11U11
b:1 1
11-1:
U1--11U1
11-1-
11-1111111
111-1U1-11U11111-1
111U11
b^:2
U1--:
1111]111
--11U111b
1-11-1-
-11U1U1
111-11--
1U1U11
-1-:
-1]1:
1U119
9-11U9U1U1-
bU1-1
---1----
91U11
1-11-
11U11-111
1-1111
:-111
1--:^9
11U1U
1-1-9
9111111U1:
1U111U
11-11U
-1-Y1-1-
1-,1-1
1111--
1--11
11--1
11-112
1111U
11-19
1--1Y
Y1-111:
1--1-1-
-1U1U
^:U11
1-1-1111^
11-11U1
-1U11-1U1
--111111----11-1
1119
1-111-1-1U
b111-b
-1Y11
1--1-11111U
-111]
111U:
1111-11
-1U1-11U
Y11--
1----11
11U1U1
U::U:
bU1111-U
1U1-11-:]
1-111111
-11-1
U111]
U-11-11-
1U111-9
^---11^
:-Y1-
-11]1
1-11b
^11U1
1-1U1
11-1--11-1111-
11U1U
1-111
1]1-1
:U1 :
1U1U11
11U111
11-1-
U---1^
U1111-
9U:^^
11119
1111-
1:U11-
U11U1]
U111-1
-1:U1U
:::]:
1-1U911
9-1 b
]1U11^
1-11-
111111
11U11-
11-111
111-1
:11-1-
-1-1:
:1-Y
U1---
--11U1-1
1U-11U1U
1U1-1
11--1--1--1
-11-9
-1-11
]1-19
:U1-1--
11-1
111--1:
:-111
11-111-111
-1U1^
-1-bU11-
1-1^Y
1-1111-11]
1-1111-:
:--1U
]11^b
51---1U91U
-1-111-
11111-11-1
11-111-
1--1]1111
-1-111
-1U1-1
1U111
11---
--111
b1-1
-111U1
1-1-11-
-1-1---
--11-U11-
-^^91
111--
11U1U
U1119
1-1U1
-11U11111-1
bU1 b^:1
11-1-1--1U
1^1-11--
1-11-
1111U
--11-11
11-11
91119
:^b11
1-1]1
1U111
-11111
:Y1111911
1]11:
1-11U1
U111
11U11-
2-1--1
1--1]
1^Y:^:
1U111
U1115-1]^
:]1Yb
911-1]:
-11U1
---1-
-11--
:1-1^
-11U9U
----11
11-111U1
111-1
1111-1
-111U1U1:1^
-11-11b
1U1U1
U1U9 ^
11:]
-1-11
1-111-U111
^1^1-
1-11:U-
---1-1--
11-1-
211-
fU1U1
9U1U111
-1111
91111
]U11119
--11--11
1-,1-1
U111U1-
-111--
1-11-1-
-Y:-1
-11-1U11
11---1U1--1
11UY11
111--1
1U1U1b
111,-1-
1-1111b
111-11
11111U1U1U1
11-11U11--111-
U1-19
1111111U
1-11-1
1U11]1
1---1
,-911-9
-1-1-
111Z1-
b U2:
-1-1-111
11---
--1111]
11-11-1-
91111
1-1U1
--1-b
-11111119111111111-U1111U1
U]U11-
1U1U1U-
--1-1
1-11-1
:1-111
1-11-11U11-1111-
1-111-111
-111U11----
-1-1-1-
-1-1
:U1^1--,
-,1--1--
1-^ 2U-
1-111-11-11U1U1
1111111U
-11--
1-1111-111111
--1-1-1-1
--19^
11U111111U9
-U11Ub
1111
11U11U
11U11--111-11
11----
b-11111-
9--111U
1-111111U1
^1U1]
U11-1b
111-11111111
1U1-11-
-1-11-
-11111111-11-111
^1-1-
911U9
1--11-1]1-U11-1
11U1U1111U1
-11-11
1U1-U1--111-1
1111--
9U]1-
111111
9-119
1111U1-1
1-111-
-111-11-
11-111-b
1-1111111
111--
]11111b
191-11U]
1--1-U1
1--11--
1--1U1
11111
--11-11-
:-11-1-:
1111--11-11111-1-11--11
1---1
1111-1
11-19
1U11U1
--11-
11111-11-1
111-1
91-1-1-111111-1-11111
-11U111--b
111111
111--
}1111U1
11-1b
-1111-11-111
9-11]
]]11-11U
1111-
-111111--
---,--
-1-1U
-111-1
1-111
1-11-1-
1-11-11U1
11111
1-1U1
11--11]
T]1U111
1U11U1
111--
1U1-1-
1-1--]
1-11-1
-1-1-19U111U1
1U111
-11111
1---111
--11U11-1111-111119
11U11--11-
91-11U1111-1-1]
^11U1119
U111U1
U1U111111
--1--1111
,-1111111111-111-11-1U1
111111-1
-1-111
-11--
111]-1
1111-119
-1U11U]
1-1U1--11
11-11-
1-1U1-1
1^:^1-1-
11111-1
--1-1-
11111
-1111
1-111]111
5U1U9-
111-1-1
-1-111-
-111U
1U111
11-1U11U
U1-11-
-11-1
U1-U11
-111-
1-1111U
11-11
1U111111
11---
1111--
-1U1--1-1
--]y1
1111-
-11-11
111-111-1
111U-
11-1-1-1
1111U
-1-1U
11111
11-11U1-
-1-1-
U11----
-1U111
1U:U-1
--11111
1U11111
11-111
1111U1-
--U11
--b1Ub
--1111--1
111111
-1^1-
:Y1U1-
11111-1
1-11U-
U11111
1-1U1
--1111
11--1-
-11-1
1111-11U
y1-11111-1U
1111~
111-1
111--
]U1U111
--1111U
1:1-11
:b :Y
51-1111U11
1-1U11U1
]U11111
U1---
1-111
U111U1U
-1111
10y]-
-1-1U11U
--111U11
1-11U
9U11U--1
-11-1
9-1-111
111-1
f b b
11111
-11-1U1
111-1
U111-11
]U1111U1U
^11-11U1
> b b
U11U11-
:U1-9
-9U111
-11111
1111--
-1U-11-1
U1--1Y1U1U
11:-1
11U1
U11-1U9
11U1-
b1111U
b^11
1-11]
11--b
1U1111-1
111U1111U
:-1^1
-1-1U-1
1-1111Y
-1U-111-
-1U11
b1-1U
:U1:^
111111
Y1-11
1-Y]y
1111 111
-1U1-
]y111
y1111UU11
U^^::
b1^11^b
b :
^1U^b
1-1
1-111--
-1-1---
-,1111-1
1-1U1111
U1U1UU
11-11
1-11U1--
U1111-1-
1-11-
^111-
111-11-
-1111-1
91111-1-
--11-1]
11-11111-111-11
11U1-1
^Y:^^
111-1
--1111^
-1--1-1
11U1U
:-2f
^11^-
1111-1--1111-
-11-1
-11111-
1U1U11-1
11-1111U
1y111
1-b::
11-111-11
1--1111
11^:U-11-1
111111-
---111-1-
11-1--11-
111--
111111
yU1UUUU
f^---
1-:11
U9111
11-111
11111
11U1111111-1
1-1Uy
--11U1
1U1-1
11111111yU
y1-U1
1Vb1V11
-11-1
1111-111-1
11U1111
11111^
111-
1-1111-
111-11U1U11
-,11U
-111U1
1U11U^y
1U11-11
^2^1Ub
:U11-1V
11111-11^
-111-
1-1-1
11-1--1U111-
11-1--
1--111
Y1^11
-1-1--
1-1111-111--
1111-1-
11--1
-11111
9^11^2
U1-111-
-1U-1-
11-11111-
11-11
-1111U
11-1-
-Y11-
--11U1
--11-1-
-1111-111-1U11-
1yY1Y1
U1111
U111U
11--1
1V111-
11-1--
1111-1-
-1-11111-
1-11-1-
-1--1^
1--11-
11-1-
1111111-
--11-1--
1-1-1
1-1-1-1
1111-1--
1111-
11^:-
-11111-1111-1-1111111-
1-1-1-
1U1-1-
1U1111
111---
--11-1-11-1--
----Y1-
1-11-1
1--:11
1-1111-11-1-
-111-
:-1--11-111
:U111----
1--111-11U11--
U111-
1-1112U
1--1-
--1-11--
--11-
U1111-1
1U1-11-1
11-1-
11--1-11
:-11-1
-1-11^:U
1:11U
1--11----1-1
-11111
1-111-1U-
11111
U-11-11
^-1-11-1-1-11--
-1-1-1-
-111--
-111-11U1
11111111U
-11--
11111-11U1
1-1U--
-11U1
:U111:
--111-11
1-111U
1U111-1-1-
1U11U
-1111-111111
1-11-
-1111111-,
111111111-1
1--1-111
-1111-
11-11111
11111-1-1--,
-1111
-1U111U
11-111U1
1--11
11U11111-1
111-1
1-1U
11-111-1-
-1-11
-1,--
--111-1111
1111U11--1
-1-1U
111U---
-11111U
-1-1-
U1-11
--1---
-11U11
1-111-111
-111U1
-11111-
-11111-1
111-1U
11-11
:U1U1
U111-111-11
111111U11-11--
--111--1-1
1-11-1
-1111
1111-
Y--11
-1111U11-1111
-11-11-
U11-1-
-1-111---
1-111111
-111-111-
11--1
2^1U11---
1-111U
11--11
11-1-1
]1U1--111
11U111
-Y:Y1111
11U1111-1-11
1-1111111-
-1111-1-
1U111111-
--1--1
1-11--11-
U11--
1--11--1
191--1-11111
1-1-1-1
1-11-11-
-1-11-1U11--1-1
:1-11
1111-1
1111-11U11-U1-1
:U111
:1111-
-1111-11-
1-1-1
111--1111
-1--,11-
-11111-111
-1--11---11-11111111
111111
-11--11
-11--
--1-1
-11-11-1
1-11::YU
1--11
1-11-1U11-1111
1-11:U
1--11
-11-1^^
11-111-
111111-11---1-1-
1-1-1111--
-1-1---1-1-111-
:U11-1--1
1-11-11U11
11U1-
11--11111-
-1111U
U111--
1-111-1
11111111U1
V::U2^
1U11U
111U1
19U111-
1U11-1111
111-1-
1-111-11-
1-111
--1Y1-1
11111-
-1111
1U11U11
1-111111
11111U1
11U:U
--111U1
1-1-11-111-11U11
1--1---11
11-11
11111
1V:^U1
U1-11
1U1111
111111]
1111111-U11-1
1U11-1
111-11
-111-1111-111
11-1-1---
-11-1111
1-1U1--
11-U11
111U1
U1U1-
1-11^
-1111-1-
111-1Y^11
111-11U11
1U11U
111111-1-1-1--
]111Ub
1Uf--11-
1^-1:
:U111
1-111
U1-1-111
1-1-111111
1-11111-11-111--
-1111-
-1-1-1-1
111----
:U111:
11111
1111^
11-1U1U---1Y111
1-1-11
1111-1U11-
:U11-1U
1U:^b
11-U1
1111-11-
:1U111
-1111-111
11-11111--
U1111--1
1]:1^
111--11V11
1-11111
---1U11111U1
-11-11U1111--
,1111-
--1^1U
Y111-1
11:U11
2U::U1
11]111--
1U1U1
-111-11-11U11
11-111
11-----1U1
1-11111U11:U1
111-11-
U-1--111-
111-111-11
1--1U
-111-
11-1:111
11111111--
1----1-
:U:U1:-U
^1U1:U1U1111
-111-U
---1-
1-1-11
-11-111
1111U1
2-1---11Z1-
U1111
-1-11-U1-111U
11-11-11U-
--1-,
1-11--1111
11-111
1U1^1
:U^:^Y
----1-
,-111-
-11111-U
-11111-111
1^1^:
U1-1111111
111-11
11U1-111111
11-11-1111-
11U11U
111-1
11-1-
^1-11-1
1U11:
111-111
111111^
111^^1
:U1U1:
11-11
1-111111
1-11---1:U
:-1-1-
11-11-
-11--
1-11-U:
11111-
-11U1
1-1-1-1
1-1--1--11-11-
:1U:]
:-11-19
:Y:1^
:U29:^
11-1---
,1-111
--1^ :
1U11-11-1
1-1-1
111--
,1111
111-U1
:^^ ^^12^^^
1U111
11U11111U
1111111
1111-
:]:1]
:-111U1^
-11111
^^ ^^^:1U:
-1111
1--1--11-
:U219:^
2Y2U1
-1-11
1111111
U112^
:^:1^::
:^:^:
1]1U11
911111^
:1:^^^
11U1V1
11U1Z
^:Y11-1
-111-1
1111U1
111-1
:YU11
9U:Y^:]
1-:b^1^V
-11111
111-1
-1-1^-
1-1-1-11
111111U1
11111
111^^^:
:::^:
21V:2
1-111-1
:U111-11
9111-11-1111-1
-11111
111-11-1
-1111
1U1U2-111
1U1^::
11-11111
-11-11
-1-11
-1--11
-1-11-111-
1-11-
111U:
^1-1::
:1::1
5U1U:1:
11U11
11V11
1U111
U1U11-1-1
111111U
1-111
-1-1-1--1
9^:Y1V
::U11
-1111-1-1
1U111
-11-1
-1-1111-U
-11-1
11111-111
1U111
-1111U1-11--111-
:::^1^
:^Y111U1
:U2]11^
1111U1-1U111
11--11
11111
1-11-111
U11-11-1
11111-1-1--1U1
1:U:1V
::U9:
:]:^::^9
9^:U:
:9V11
U11-1
11111
1-11111U
1U1111-
-11-111-1U1
-11--111
111111
2^:Y:
^:^:1
^:^:]
:^:1]:
111111
-1111-1-11-111
11-11
-11-111111U11111
2U1-1
111-1111U1
11-11V
1V::2^
11U12
1111U
9:V:1
U9:U:
::11-U11-11
11-11111
11-11
11U11-1111-11-111
11-111U1
1U1U1U111
111111-1-11
1-11U11111
1U111-1
-111111-11111V11
111U11-111V
1V121
11:U11
:Y:U1
111-11-1111-11-111-111
U1111
1:U11:
1-1-1U1
1111-111
-11-111
U9:U:1]
1U1:1^1
111-111U1
U1-1-1111U11-11
111111
-11--111
111-1
1-1U11U
11-111-11-
U11111
2U111-1
^1111
1111-11
1111--
11--1-11-1-1-U11-
1-111U
11-1U11111U111
1111-
-1111111-1111
11-11111V1111
1]^:]
U1U11
-11^1U1
-11U:1
-1^^:
1---1111111-1111
-11-111U
^111111
111111U111111-1-
1U2U11---
111U1U
111-1-1
-1-111-1U1
1-11-
1-1-1111111
111-11
1-112U2
--1111
1--11--
U-11U11-11U1-1111-
111111
1U11U
11111
1111-
1111-1111
-12111-
1-1V1
U111U
U1U119
:1-U9
1111:
111-1U1
11111U1U1111-11-
-1111-1111-11U1U
111-1-11
1-11U1111111-1-1-111-1
11-111-1U1111
-1111
U1U1:
:11 b^
1U11U11
1U1-1-11
111--
1-1-1111111U11U1
111-1-1111-111-1-11--
1--111
1-11-111
-111U
1111-
U1-11-1
1^:]:
:^b-1U
2Y-11
U1111-
-111111111-1111111-11-1-11111-1
111-1111111
-111-
-1-1-
1U11111-1-1-11111-1
111-11
11-1-1--
-111111-
111111-
11111-
11-111
-111-11
1111-1111
11-11
^Y^::
b^b a
:::U:
-1-11-11-1-1111-11-1
11111-111U1-1
1-1-1U1-111
1-1--
^::U9:
f^b^:]
9^:]:b
U1--1
-1-1--1-
11111-1111-
6:: :
:Y:U:
11^:^:b
:U b^
:^::11^:
11-1U11-11-1--
--1b
6Y-11U:
:1::-U:^
2---1
:b:^ ^:
^::^5
1:U:1^
::^:^
,--11--
--1--1U1
2:^ b
1^ ::^b^
11^1^::
:U:U91
U1-11
1V1^:
1-11-1
^:^1^
61V9^:^Y:
::^1:Y
:1^1U
11-111
1111-1
-1-11
21U11
1^:Y9^:
:U:Y:U
2Y1U11
1-1-1
,-111-
-11--
-11::
^:U::^1^:1^:Y
9U111U
1-1--1U
11-11-111-1
:Y:U:1
b b
:^:Y1
^ 21^1]: Y:
11111
-111111
11U:V
-1U2U
---,1-
--1-1
21^2-:
::2:U1
U:^:2
9^:^:U1^1^::
111U1-
Y1^:
-11-11-
:22U2
2^:^2^1
1211^:
:^21V::
V92Y:Y:
U::Y:11
^Y:]1
1111--1-11
111U1
1-1111
111-11--
:^::V12
1----
11^2^2V12V
1291U
1^:U1U1
2Y:V::U:
:2Y::Y:
:9V::Y^:U:
1U11--
1111-
-1111
1-111
1111---
11-1--1
V:2V1
U2^1:U:
:2^Y:
2]2]:
::V:Y
2]:2^1^:1V92^::Y9
^:U::
Y11^1
1--111
-111-11--1-
-,1V:V2
11V11
:U:U:2^1:
1^:1U
1V:Y:
::29V9U
:^1^2
1--111-
-1--1
:111-111-11
2V:^:
1-1-1-
11U1-
12^:V:1
U29U2:
2^12^1V12Y:U
:VY2V
2]219V9
:U:Y:
111-11-1
-1---
11-11-
--1--1--
11111
11-1111
11--1
1U2^2-
1-111
1^2^2
:U:^:
1:12^
9V19U11
:Y^:U
-1-111-1
1--1-1-1
11---
11-11
-1-1-
2Y::2:
^1^12
:Y:Y:
11-11
-1-1111
-1-111
--111-
11-1111--11-1-
1-11--
111V1
1111-
:^2:2:
:^::U::2:
2^11:^Y
:2]:Y2U:
2::^9^
11--1
111-1-
1111-
-111-11-11--1
1-1--
1--1-
^:V1:
:^2:^2:
:U2^2
:2^:1VY
2U:U2^Y
-21U1-1-11
-11-1-11-111
1U::V:
:^^^::V:V2
^12Y:
:1^:Y^Y:
:Y1:V:
2U:1U2
2Y::2^Y129:Y:
:Y:9U
11--1U
11-11-
-1-11111
11-11
1111-
b
_^: 2-
^2^1U:
YV9:2
2^12^
2Y:^:
:Y:^:2^1
11-11-11
--11U
U11-1-
1-111-
: b
^2:^2
2V:2V
1^:2:
2::VY:
:V:Y:^
:Y2:Y
:2Y:V
9V:9U:U
--1111
11-1--11
11-11
1-1-21
11111U1
1111-
1-11-1-1-
-1-1--
^ ^^^^^ ::1
V:Y2:U2
2^:^2Y
U2V1U
:V92^1V1
1VY:^2U
::2:V
:2:V:1V:Y^
2Y:Y:
:2^1V
:Y::1
-1-11-
1-1-11
11111
-11-11
11-11
1111-111-11
1-1--
: :^::V:U
:::U2^
:2Y:2
1V:Y:
2Y::::
:Y^2Y:12
::^22Y^2^Y2::
6Y::2^:
1-1-11
1-111
1111-1
-11111
11111
11-1-
111U11
11111-11U1111U1
--1-1
11-111
-11-111
5V::^
:2U2Y
292U2
2:2^1
:2Y2:
1U1-1
2U11111
111-1
1111V12U
12921^1^2
2^2V:2
::V:12
:Y:Y:2^1:
2^2:^
-1-111
1-111-11
11-11
-11U1
-1-11
-111-
11-11
11--1
V:^1:
:Y^2::
2Y::2
:Y2]2^:
:U29V92
:2U2Y^:2:2:V:^Y:
1:2:Y:
^92]1^
V1U11
-1111
12U112U
-111U1
-11-11
11-1-
2^:V:
16^:Y
29V:::
:Y2^2
2::^2^
6V:V:Y:^:
:U1:Y9
111111
111-1-
111111-1-
1111-1
11-11
1111-1
11--1
-111-
U2:V1
::U1V
1^:Y9^:
U2]2:Y:Y92^2:
:Y^:^
1111-1
11-21:
1V111
21-11
1111-11-1
111111-
11-11
11--1-
1-1-11
:^11U
:1V1V2
1^:V:
:::^1^
:^:Y:
^:Y::9:
19V1^1
1111-1
12V2U:2
111U1
111-1
-1111
1111-11U
111-1
-1111
1--1111
1:V:Y:V:
:Y^:Y::U
:2Y^2^:
1U1]21U
1-1111
1^21V1
1-11111U11
111111-11
11-11
111-11-11-1
1^:Y1::
9:Y:Y:
Y:U92
1-1111
-1-11
-1111
1--11-1
-1-1-
1-11-
:U2:^Y
:^2Y:^::^:
2]2U1
2Y2^2V
1-1111
11-11-
-1-11
1-111
21U11V1V1
1U22^:Y:
11-1-11
11-11
11-11-111-
1:V1:2
^5::V:Y^:
2:9^:
-1:U2YV
-111-U
1--1-
1-1U1
1-121
Y:Y::
^::::
:Y:::
^22^1
11U111
1-11-1
-1-1111111
111-11
11-11-
12^:1V
:U^Y2:Y
1]2^::
:U:U2:2]2:Y
-1111
1-11111
111-111
V129U
^2U:1
2]:^:
-21U1
U21:U1
2Y^2Y
-111-1--
1111-
-11-1U
11-11
1]29V
:Y:1^12:Y6^Y
2U:1V1^1
U:22V
:1U1U
1V:V:
:V:1:
:Y:Y^
^:9:^:
:U:^1
U:2^2
::U12
1V1^1V:22U
21U11111
-21V11
12111
111V11
::VYV:1^
Y::V:
:Y:Y9:
:^Y:9
Y:1V:
2U1U1
2V2Y2
Y:2:2
1V:12^2::
112U212
111U11
Y^2^:2
2Y:U2U:2
:U1V:
:1^1^
1::Y:
:U91^Y
1V:V:2
V11:V:
1^21V
:V:^:
-22U11V
112U1-
1111-
:1U21U2
:V2:U
:Y:2:Y
^2Y2:2U2
::V1:
:Y:Y]::
2U2UU2:U2
6:^2V
^^:^::V::V
11-21
211111
:V12^2Y
1^1^Y:Y
:Y^Y:
::2U::^
2^1V2
:Y2Y2
V:U1^:
::^::
-1211-111
111-1
5V:^2
2:^12^:1:
U:Y2^Y:2::
]2^Y1^
::Y:^
:2^2^
6:V::
V1V:21:V:
::^:2:2
22U2:2U:2U
12111
111-11-
:2^2:V:
V:V:U2
:Y2^Y
:1^2Y:
2]2^Y:
2:Y:2
9:^Y:
:1:U:
:1V21V
:V2^2U:U2
11121
-11-11
111-1-1
1-11-1111
:Y21:
2:2^2]2^Y:V:U
:Y2:^
^1U:U::
:Y:92Y:
2:1U21
2^U2U22U
V12^2
:V:^2:U2U
2:2Y2:
2U111111
2]2^1V:
1V9V:129
2U:Y12
2^2Y:U:Y^2
:12]2::
2^:1V1
1^2:V:1VY:
1111-1
11111-1
--1112111
92:1V9:
6U9::V:
:Y^Y2
^:Y]:
21V:U
V1V12
2121V1
V1111-1-1
2U1V11
U2U21:
U:12^1:2
:2YV9
^2]2^1
:V:V:^:
U:2Y:
:::U:
:1^2U:V112
1111-
21V^21^
V1V2^2
:211V12U21
6:2U2:
12:U2:V
V11-11
V:U2^
U2^1V:1^:Y
::Y2:^
222U211
2U111
11-21
2112U
619V:Y
1::^::Y12U9V:
:::^:Y::^:
:::::::2Y
1V1-1
1V12U22
2U2Y2V12
V1U21U
212-1-
V1211
U1V52^29V1
^1V12U:Y2
:U:Y:Y
:Y2^2
:YV1^Y2^
:Y:Y:
1V1V:21
11-11U
1U2U21
:V::V:
2]2^2Y::
2^2Y1
:V:Y::
^^::^
::^::Y:
V21V1
1V:21V
211U12U
111-1
V:U6:V1
:V2^2^1
:V9V:1:
^:Y2:
Y1::^
::^^^:
2:^:21U:Y29VY
^^22:
622U216
:16U2U
U12U1
21U2U1
-12V:1U2
U2UU1
1111-
1V1V1
:U1V:
2U22^:
1V::^Y:
:^:Y:6
2^::::^:::
:b^::
2^2^2:
V12^2U21V
U21V1-1
2U212
-1U21V2U22
2U1V11
:V2^2
:29:Y^
2^:V222]
1:^:2^2
:V:2^2
:2^2:
1-1-12
U1V11U1V
112U1
:1^12^
^1:U:V:U2:^1
::YV2^:Y:V9
2U21V
U2U211
1U1:U2U
:12:2Y
21V:2
2YV2Y
:1V:V1V
1^:2^:Y:
:V9^:
1V9V:
1^ V:
V2:^22V
21:V1V1-1-1U2
1V2U:2U
V12V12
:U2:U22
V1^1V:1^:
^:2::
U12U2
11111
1^:12:^2U
12^2^
U1V221
11112
121V1
12V1V1U22U
1U1212
1V1U2
:2V22:
2U:U:2^:V9:2:
V:Y2U
:2Y1V
29:U:1
11111
V1V21V
Y1V16
1V21U
121V2122
11U2V
V:Y:2
2^1U2^2
2^2U2Y
:U29V
:2^:2U2]
2Y:V:
:V512V
1211U
1U12U
1V1V2
11111
U1212V1V12V21V22
22^2Y2
:U29^2
^:V1:
V:2::V:2^Y:
:U:^2
1::^Y:
21V1V:
2Y2:U1:
2^12U
1U221
V11V2
:VY2:
:12Y2:
1:V:Y2
:Y:U:1V:Y:Y::
U2U2U
U1V212
V:V:^:^
^:2^2
2U121
2U2:2V
2^12^2U:
:2Y^:Y::
62V9V:U::^2:
::^:V:
2:V:^
2:Y^2U1
U2U12
V2Y21^:
^^:^^^:V:V
U2U22V
1-11V6
62:V2Y
V:U2:
2:25VY
U1^:V
5:2:U2^:
:U:1:
:V:U:
9V9:^2
::VY:^:Y::V:
1V2:2:1^
:^::::
:2V:VY11-
U2V2V12U
:2VY:12
6:2^22^21
2^Y1^12
2:U:V
:^:2::
:::^:
^^2^Y::Y2
::2]2U:
:Y]:^
YU2^2
221^212Y2^
221-111V12U221V1
2^211
U122U
2:V122:
U2:2Y2
:2:U2
9V2^2:Y
:^:~::^Y:::
:^::^:
:Y2^9
211U2U2U
:::::^
V21V1U2
2^2:V::
Y6V::^:V:
2Y:V::
:::^:
1:1^2
]12Y^
:U2:Y2U
6:2^1V
:VY2^
:V^^^^:^:^^:^:^Y:2
2V:22:^2:V:^2
2^21111
2U22U21-1
12222
U2^2U
:Y:6Y:
:U2YV
2^1::
:Y:1::^::
:Y:^::^:
52V2^
^^;:^^2
U12U:
::^:^
V:2Z2:V22
12U21V
12^:1
V2U2V2
:V:VY2
1:V::^:2
::^2:V:V::V:
2:Y212
VY:U::YV:1
:U29V9V1^
:Y^Y:^
:U2^2
U:::U1::1V:2
^:^b:
V:V1^:
2:1V:
:::2:
:^:V:1V:^
6:22V2:Y2^2
:2U1U2
2U2122
112U1
1111-
V2^:2V:
:2^::^2:2
2:^2^Y:
:29V:
:::Y:
:V:Y2
^::^:
22V::
21V11
U11111-111V111
U2V2^2
21V11
::^:^::
2^2Y:Y2^1V9V::
:V12Y2^2Y:1^1
U2::2
:^2:^:
::1::Y1^2^Y:
2^Y:^2:
1V1V1V:
2V:V2:^Y:Y
::::-2
^:2U:
2V2:2
::1V:
1-1U2^1:VY
21U21
V:2^:^2
^^::^2
:V:Y:V:2
^2Y2:^:
:Y:2^1V1^
:V12:
::^5292:
2:V:2^:^
::^:^:
::^:^
:^:^22
2:^:V:
112Y2:
11V11
^2Y:^::
2:U:^2
^:::V:
2Y:1^:
2:2U1
V:^:^::^:^:^:b
^^^^:^2V222^:22^
22^:11
6^22:V2
2V2V22
Y22U:2
6:^22^:
6^:^:^:
:2^2:
:V1V:
:2Y:^2
Y:f^:^
:2:::
692^2
21^2:
2U::^::::::V:2^b
b_b^:U
V12Y^::V
2:V1-2V:2^2:2^:
::22::^:V1
111-1
:::^^
:2^:V:
:2Y:Y:
::::^:
::2:Y^:
:^:1:
2^21^
^1V:^
U:^::^^^
:^^ ::^^2^
2^2^1V
222:VY:
2^2^6^::^2
2Y:U2
:^:^2::^2
::^:^:
:^:Y:
:2:Y::
^Y:Y:Y::
:^::^:
:Y^2:^2Y:
2V:U^:2
^1V9U1
:Vb
f^:b f
2:Y2^:
:2:V:1111
6:V2:V2
:U1U1
6:^:^:
Z :^:1V
:^^ :
212^:
6:^:^
:2Y^2
2:Y:V:U:
Y:^^:
^^^^:^:^
U::Y::Y
:Y6:^:
5:Y2:1
2U::2Y::16^:VY
: ^ ^;
::^:^^
^^^^c^
2:V1V:YV
VY:V:V1-1
:V:1V2:
1V111U
:^^: :^^:^:U2V
V:::^:
:2:Y:V:::
:^ :^:
:2Y::
:VY::U:V:Y:V:::^:
:2::>:^:Y::V
:Y:V:
> f b
:V:^:
;:^2:
V:2:V2^:
-111V:1
2U1^212V
2^11V
11V1-
^2:^:2U2
^g :::^::
6:^:Y6U
:^^^:
:U:^2
::Y::Y:
:1V:^2
:^:Y:
^1:V1
:V::2
^12U2^1
: b
:^^ b^
:2: ^
::^ :^:VY112:^::1
:V1^2
1::V9V2
22:Y2V
-111V1U
2:^2:V:
:V:V222
::^2:
^^^^::
1V2Y:V
:2^Y:::^2
:^ :V:
:^::^:
:^::^:
:^:^::
2U:2V
:Y:Y21^
: ^:^2:
^22Y:2V2
22U2V
2:1^1^2Y
:^::^^^:^::2
::U2:Y:
U2^2^2
:2]:V:2
::V::
:U^:Y:
::::^:
:Y::^:
:2^:2
:1^>^ b ^ ::
:^111-2:
1129^2
6:^2Y
2V::^:Y:
:Y::^^::
^:^::
^::V:
::^22:
::^^::
:Y:Y2::12:^2^2Y2
:V121:Y2V:
::VY:
b^::^^
j bf b
b b^22^:
:V:^2
62^16
^:V2U1
V2Y211U
f^::V:
:^:2^:Y2Y
:^:b^:2^22U
:V:2:^:
>:^:^
:::^:^^^:^:^::V:
V1^b
1^::^:
5:V:^:^2:
::^:^:
:Y2^2
^:^^^^
:1::^2
::V1V:^2
1:U:V1
b
^^:^:Y:
1-111
V1:VY
V:^^:^:
:2^:^bV
:^:Y:^:^::
::Y^:
:U:Y2V
6Y:12U2
:V11^
b^2^
b b b b
b
12^11V
V:V92^:
2Y:2^::
::^::Y::^::
:Y2^:
2:Y1V
::^_^
b f
b^ b^
:U2^:::
:U2:V2Y
^:U2^
2^:b^^
::Y]2
:^Y ::
:^b b:
:Z^^:
2:V^Y2
:^:^::^:
V22921V1
:2^2Y
V:^:2^
^ :U2
::^:^^^b
:>^: :
:2V:^Y:2:2
:Y2]2:
2U29U1
1U1^:^:^b ^
:1^:V:U:
^:f :
f:b ^
U:Y2:2
b b b
U21U22
:V9V1U:2
2]2^12
::^:11:^:^::f^::^b^:
: :^b:
:^ b f
2:Y:Y^:::
V9V92
2U1^12
::^b >
b b b b
f b bV:^1
U1U21
:V:U:
:^Y2:1
::1:^:::^:^^
b :>
: b f^b^
^2^2^:
2^1^1V
69^::
:f b :
:^ :
: ^^:^:
: b ^
:Y2^:1:^:
2^1V:
1:V:1
::^::
b b
^b^ ^
2121^
b b^: b
::^:^
>^:V:2:^::^^^b^b
b >
:^:Y^2
:^:U11
22V:V:V
:^^^:^:
:2^Yb^
: b
:^b:
b^ : b
: b >
:^: 2
:^^^_^>
b b
^^^:2
:::b_
b bB b
2:YU:2
62YV::
::^:^:
^::^:^^^
:^::^:
2115V
^2Y:2::
:^:V:
^:Y2^:
^2:Y^:V:
V:2:V
:_:^:
b ^
:^::^::^:^:
2:2^:
62Y:1^2
^2U:1
^^:Y:^^:
:^^:^Y:^:
^b ^ :
:^b
b >^b b^ >
f^^^:
:^52^
2U1^2
::^2:
b b
b b
b ^^:
::^^^:
V:U:U2
V112:
:2::^:2^
^^:b_b
bb f :
12U21V:U2U1
::^::
b b b
f^^b
:Y2::
5:U^:
::^^:
>^^ b:
::Y1:^Y:
1:V:U21:V1V
1:2U:V
^1^1U21V:1^
:b^:^^
:^^^^:
^::^^:^
b b b b
:^1^:
:^::U
fb : b
2^Y::
:Y:2:V12U:
::Y^:
1^:1V1:
:b ^::
::^:V:
b bf b
::^:^
:^:^b
:^^^:V
2U111
^2^::
::VY1U
1V:V:1V
:2^21:
::YV9^
^::::^:
:^::^:
^ f b
^b^^^:
V:2^:V:2
2:29^:
:::^:
^b^^::
: b ^
^ ^b^ : ^^^b
: ::^:
1V:1V2
2U:12Y2U
2Y2U12
:^^:^:
b f
::Y2V
:V:1^:2
^: b
:^b :
:Y^U:Y::^:^
::^:V:
:V2^:
:^1^b
b b
f b b
::^^^::::^:^:^2^
2U1:Y
^1V2^1:
:b^b:
:^:^ b
:^^^2
2Y:1^^^::
1VY2:
^^::^:::2^
YV:12Y:2
b b
:^_^:V
^291^:2:^:
::2^::
f b b
:_:>
:b^:
:::^2
2Y:V1^2:^
V1V^
:: ^^ ^b^
2Y^Y1V:
b ^b :
:^^ : ::
:VY:^:
::^:::^:
6:^^2:
:^:^
:U2:U2^:2:
Y^2^:2^
::Y:^:
b^:
>^::^
b^b^:^^^:
:Y:V:
2Y:V:
:2Y2U2:
:^^:^::^
2:^::
6Y2Y2
1^21V
V:Y:V1
b^b b
_:^^^::
:V1V:
::^ bf
:^:^>
^ ^b^
^^:2^:^::2
6::V::
1^Y:^2
:2Y2::V2Y
:::^:^
2^Y2^
^:^:^^^^^^^^Z^6
:U2^2YU
::V12:
V9^:V:
Y^:^:
:
:^b^ :
:^ :^: ^b^^b
^::V:::Y2^
::^:::
V:2Y2^21
V:Y:^1
^ b :^ :::
:^:^:^::
U2U:V
:V1^2
11V::Y:^
:^^ ^^>
; ^^^^^
5:2:^22
:^:^^^:^
::Y^::
:V2:^:
:2Y:2
:Y21:Y:2Y2U1
::^:^::
V212^1
:U2:U2
12:2^2^5:
V:Y:V:
:V:^:
^:^b ^^ b_:
b^b^:^:
f^^ :
6^Y2:
:^^Y^:2
::^:^2^
V:^1^
29V2^
^^^:Y:
:^^^:
:::^^^2:
:^^V::U:
V:^Y:
:V2U:22^:
:^:^:
:^b^::
>Z:^^6^:Y2:
2Y122Y:V:
:^^^^^::^:^::
^^:::
2:^2:
:1V:2^2U:
^12U1V1
:^^:::
:^^:^2
:2216U
:^:Y16:2
: ^ :
^_b^ ^^::
2:^^:
:V::^::V:
^^::^
2YU2]
2:^2:
:^:2^:
:^2Y22V2V:V1
2Y^2V
:^^:::^:
:::^:
U1^Y2:
^2:V:
::^::2
::2Y^
:V:V:
^::^:
_^^^:
2V2YV1
V1V12U2
V:V:V::
:^:^^^
^^:^:
:^^^2
^^c:^>^
:Y:2:
^^:^:^
^ : :
:U2:Y:
:^::^2:^:
::2:2
:2:2:12
221V1
1V:VY2:U2:U2U2
2U2^::^::
2:::^:::^:
:::^::^:V
12:::
2^2^1
2U1V2
:V11^1V:2
:2Y:1
: : b
; :^:^:: :^b^^^::
:^:Y:^
:^2Y2:
2:2^22
21V2^2:
:^^:2^:
:^:2:^:2Y:2
^::V:
-12^^
:^^^::
::^:^:^
^^^^^:^:^:^:
^^:2^:
::V:::^:
:U2^1
9V:^:V:U2^:V2U2^2^1
: : b^ :^b
: b :^^^
1^1V2^:
:V:V:
V:V:V:U
:U2^:^
:^:^^^2^2^:^2^
2^:V2^2
1^2^2
:V:^:
:^:^211
2^^V:^:^:
^^:^:^:^2^:
:^:^2^2^
:^2^2
p646-3
"d#:$
ftsTitleOverride
Modern Poetry in English (page 3)
ftsTitle
A concrete poem. Modern poetry has seen attempts to extend imaginative expression beyond the normal verse range to include verbal shapes on the printed page. Known as 'concrete poetry' this form is arresting, but limited. It sacrifices the possibility of developing an argument or elaborating subtle distinctions, but offers instead images that have a poster-like effect, or entertain the reader (viewer?) with witty arrangements of language. Shown here is Target Practice, Dedicated to both sides in Vietnam (1968) by Ronald Draper.
Modern Poetry in English (3 of 3)
American poetry
T.S. Eliot affirmed the need for Americans to be conscious of their English and European ancestry, and for poetry to be impersonal rather than a private confession. This position is adopted and reinforced, both in theory and in their own practice, by poets such as Allen Tate (1899-1979), John Crowe Ransom (1888-1974) and Wallace Stevens (1879-1955). Stevens, in particular, makes the art of poetry a major subject of his own work. In 'Anecdote of the Jar', the placing of a jar on a hill 'in Tennessee' becomes an analogy for the way that an artist's imagination endows formless nature with form, and so makes it interesting and comprehensible to the mind. Stevens's poetry is elegantly constructed - a product of self-conscious artistry.
William Carlos Williams (1883-1963), on the other hand, finds a specifically American quality in the democratically free existence of things in and for themselves. His 'poetry', which has been dismissed by some as lacking rhyme or meter, interferes as little as possible with the subject-matter, selecting and arranging only enough to awaken the reader's dormant attention. At its extreme Williams's position becomes 'no ideas but in things' (Paterson, 1946-58), and his poems become a series of 'shots', like a film or television sequence.
Robert Frost (1874-1963) also exploits the distinctive rhythms of American speech. A popular poet (more widely read than other modern poets, and more accessible in style), Frost can also be deceptively easy. His best poems question and undermine the obvious in the interests of a more tentative, cautious wisdom.
In the work of John Berryman (1914-72) and Robert Lowell (1917-77) this underground, disturbing quality is brought more forcefully out into the open. They themselves led tormented, turbulent lives - Lowell suffered spells of mental illness, and Berryman committed suicide. Private and public material is combined in their poetry. Berryman writes in an idiosyncratic, abrupt, oscillating style that gives little quarter to the reader. The Dream Songs (1964) are 18-line poems, divided into three 6-line stanzas, in which he creates the ravaged figure of a middle-aged American called 'Henry'.
Lowell's 'The Quaker Graveyard in Nantucket' (1946) is a Catholic elegy on a Protestant subject, with echoes of the Bible, Melville's Moby-Dick, and T.S. Eliot. One of Lowell's most celebrated poems, 'Skunk Hour', has for its setting a vividly realized Maine sea-port where a car radio 'bleats' a mawkish love-song. The poet's own psychological condition intrudes on the scene ('My mind's not right'), and the disturbing climax comes with moonlit skunks marching up 'Main Street'.
Among more recent American poets the one who most strikingly continues this 'confessional' line is Sylvia Plath (1932-63), who, like Berryman, committed suicide. She also represents an important trend in women's writing. Plath's images can be bizarre and her situations morbidly histrionic. In the frequently anthologized 'Daddy', the Nazi concentration camps of Dachau, Auschwitz and Belsen are used to express her own sense of victimization by domineering males.
HOPKINS
Although written during the Victorian period, the strikingly original poetry of the Jesuit priest Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-89) was not published until 1918. Hopkins's verse was principally religious in character: his nature poems display an extraordinary lyrical intensity and joyous - almost mystical - awareness of God through nature; while his so-called 'terrible sonnets' describe the poet's anguished fear of abandonment by his Creator.
Hopkins's originality and (some would say) modernity lie in his use of language and rhythm. He took liberties with word order and parts of speech, coined new words and created unexpected word combinations - all in the interests of expressive vividness. His rhythms (in particular his use of what he called 'sprung rhythm') were unusual in being based mainly on stress.
Too idiosyncratic to fit conveniently into categories such as 'Victorian' or 'modern', Hopkins's poetry was to exercise some influence on the poets of the 1930s, and is now regarded as the work of a major and innovative poet.
POETRY OF WORLD WAR I
Rupert Brooke (1887-1915) gave conventional expression to the patriotic sentiments that inspired many recruits at the beginning of the 1914-18 war, notably in his sonnet 'The Soldier', which contains the well-known lines: 'If I should die, think only this of me: / That there's some corner of a foreign field / That is for ever England.' Edward Thomas (1878-1917) expressed his feelings indirectly. In 'As the Team's Head-Brass', he set the war against the background of the old, seemingly permanent rhythms of the countryside.
However, poets like Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon (1886-1967) and Isaac Rosenberg wrote more directly of the horrific realities of trench warfare. Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) showed his disgust with the falsely heroic image of war fostered by stay-at-homes. His graphic description of a gas attack in 'Dulce Et Decorum Est' is a form of shock tactics. In 'Anthem for Doomed Youth' and 'Strange Meeting' he expresses a more profound feeling for 'the pity of war'.
Isaac Rosenberg (1890-1918), a war poet from a working-class background, who, like Owen, was killed in the last days of the war, combined an apocalyptic imagination with gruesome detail in 'Dead Man's Dump'.
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
p648-1
ftsTitleOverride
The Modern Novel (page 1)
ftsTitle
Thomas Mann, German novelist. In his novels and short stories Mann relates the inner problems of the creative artist to the changing cultural values of Europe.
The Modern Novel (1 of 3)
Towards the end of the 19th century and in the early years of the 20th, the great Realist consensus began to exhibit signs of strain, and finally broke up altogether. This development did not, of course, happen overnight, though there are signs of its origin in the later writings of Hardy, Conrad, James, Dostoevski, and even in those of the Realist novelist par excellence, Tolstoy himself. There was, however, no instantaneous recognition of the Modernist revolution in fiction. In the period leading up to the end of World War I, those novelists now regarded as the great mainstream of modern prose fiction were struggling, neglected, or even persecuted by cultural and political authorities.
The Modernist revolution
It is in the work of a generation of novelists who sprang to prominence in the 1920s that the irrevocable collapse of Realism can be traced. In the novels of James Joyce, and in those of the English writer D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930), especially Sons and Lovers (1913), Women in Love (1920) and The Plumed Serpent (1926), we can observe the main features of this fictional revolution. There is a fundamental change in the notion of 'character'. The stream-of-consciousness technique used by Joyce and Virginia Woolf causes the experience of an individual to become more intensely realized and sharply focused. The work of both Joyce and Lawrence also challenged traditional assumptions about literature in more direct and provocative ways. Both, for example, wrote about sexual experience - which even the boldest Realists tended to fill in by suggestion - more directly, more overtly, and in more specific physical detail. Both Joyce and Lawrence had their books censored and banned by the authorities. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover (1928) was printed privately in Italy by the author, but in Britain not published in complete form until the 1960s. Even those novels now regarded as the central achievements of these authors, Ulysses (1922) and Women in Love, were initially both published abroad, in France and America respectively.
Corresponding to this new focus on the individual is a changed relationship with the 'real world'. The solid, reassuring earth of the Realist novel becomes a more uncertain, nebulous and even nightmare landscape, shaped by the visionary consciousness of the individual. Modernist novels manifest a breakdown in the conventional moral scheme that formed the basis of much Realist fiction. In Joyce the values of 'art' are more important than those of morality, and Lawrence, though a passionate moralist, re-evaluated all conventional ethical taboos against sex, cruelty and violence. Revolutionary narrative techniques also contributed to the production of novels that are Modernist in style as well as content. Their linguistic texture is denser and more difficult than that of the Realist novel. It directs the reader's gaze inwards towards the artistic medium rather than outwards towards a graspable world of reality.
The alienated individual absorbed in an intense inner consciousness, and more or less lost in an increasingly surreal, nightmare world, became an archetype of modern fiction. The classic expression of this pattern is to be found in the writings of Franz Kafka. Later in the century, this sense of bewildered isolation formed the basis for the fiction of the absurd, in novels such as The Outsider (1942) by Albert Camus (1913-60), or Nausea (1938) by the French existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-80).
Elsewhere novelists tried to grasp the nature of this period, of World War I and the 1920s, with a more specifically sociological analysis, though this was often viewed from a pessimistic perspective. Three prominent American writers produced bleak, melancholy visions of a tragic age. In Fiesta (The Sun Also Rises; 1926) and A Farewell to Arms (1929) Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) wrote of the mood of disillusionment of a so-called 'lost generation' of American expatriate writers. F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) in The Beautiful and the Damned (1922) and The Great Gatsby (1925) traced the tragic decline of the 'Jazz Age'. William Faulkner (1897-1962) chronicled the declining civilization of the American South in novels such as The Sound and the Fury (1929).
929).
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* AMERICAN LITERATURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM
* MODERN POETRY IN ENGLISH
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
:Y2]:V:
11---
:U:1^Y
V:Y2Y:
:^2Y^
^:Y2^
:Y129:
^2^:Y^Y:
2^2:Y:
:Y:Y1
1V1U:1
1U21VY
1V112Y
^:Y1V:
U2:1V12
U:VY1^Y
2U:1^2
:^Y::
:V:^:
^^^::
^^:^:V
^:2::
:1111111^
:V::^:2:
1U21U
111U1
^::2:
V1V1V1
1-:1-U
2^11V
-1-11-11111-1
1U111
-1^11-
2Y212^
:Y1-:
,-:Y:
V:^:^:
-12U2
^ b
U11U1111
1U111
1111111
11-1-U
-111-
---11^
b ^
::-Y11-
b b b b
1U^1^
11-11
1----
1U1--
111-1-
^:V1-
2Y6U2
11111::
^ b
:1U:U
21U1-
121U2
2^2U12^Y:^
-1:1U
:Y21
1-1--
^^2116
111-1
-11-----
:^Y::V:V:Y^2Y1U:U
^^^^
2^Y21
12^1U
1-1-:-
2U12Y2:VY
-11--
1-1U1::
^^: b
:Y:V:VU:UV:1
21U1V1
--1--
:U--1-
11:Y:
U1V:^b
111:2:1U
111-11-1
b b
^^V1:1
-1-111-
-:YU1
^ b b
:V:U b
U1U11V:VY2
1^:^:
::^:1
b b-
1-11--
---1-
11-1--2-
-12U2U1
U1-11-
1-11-11
1U1^:
^ b
U1111
1--1-
U21--
U:12-^2^
-1--2
--1:V1
-1:-1U
^21--
b
11-1--
2^1^21
U1111
1-1111
1-1^1
-11^1V
^21:V:
:U:21-
b^^ :
1 :V:
1:^--1
2^1-
2^1^^^
^^:^:
:^^: b
111--1
1-1:-,
2^b bV
b ^11---
:1-11
--1U^
:2U1
-11U1:
U11^2
2^1^1:
^ b:^:Y2
1-111
:U1^:^
::V1--
U1111-
11--:-
21U2U
6111^-
::V1^
--1U1-
211U1-
::U:U
11---
:^1^:
:1U:^1
U--1-
16::V
-11---,
:Y::Y:
:2Y--
^ b b
1-1:1:1
1^Y1^
^b f
YU11-
2U:U:Y1^
2-1--
U^Z::
1V1^
1-1-111
U::2^:^1:U:
2^:12
-11--
--1-1-
b ^
:^Y^:2
1V1^2:V:
V1-
^^ b :
^21:
11-1U
^^^:^2
-^^-:
^1-1V
1Y:b
b2-1
:1:^^^
-1---
U1^1V
1111U:
^ :-1
-112U1-1-
11-11-
U:-11
-b:11^
-11:U
1121--111^
^12Y21
111--1-1
1U:1::
b^1U2U
:^121
-111:U
-1-:-11
b1-,1-
1---1
1V12^
^^^::
--1--
1:^b
2^1-1
1^111
V:V1V
b
^:11-1:
1U:11U1U:U
1^111V1-
1-1U2^:^2
:^bU:
bV:U2U
11U: b b
b b^:
:V:^^^^ :
11:1-:
1-11U
:^1^1
:U:
--:^1-
--1^b
^ ^
-^ 1-
:b^:1
-11-11
U^Y:Y:
:^ ^^-1
2^^V:
1^:U1^ b
-112^
V:^1
:^^ ^
^ b :^:Vb
:11 1
:U1-1:
^2^:^
U: ^^
:^Y:^f
^^11--
1U:-1
:11--1U
^ ^^1
1^111U:U1
211U2
:U2U:
11-1
^-111^::
5^:2^
-1:Y2
^111U
b b
-1U1-1V:
--11U
11-:
b b b
::21:
111--
b ^
1 ^b
:Y:U:
-:1^^
b b
^ f^b^
:^1-:
1:U2^Y
^ b : 1
-11:2
::-Y
1V:1:-
^^^:::
:V b^
b b -
b b
1:1U1U:^
^ 21-
:1U1-
1^ b
:U2U:1
^ ^:
b b
2U:1-
Y^ b
:1V^^^^
:1-Y:
:U::Vb^:^:-
11V1V
b b b
21-1:
b b U1
-1:^:
bV11-
b b
:-111
:^^^2:
1-1--:
12U11V1
^:11U:
U^^1^
:2^Y2
::^^:U
:1---
^ U2
b^:^^
b^1-1
21
-1^^^2U
11^2-
b b
bV1--
b b b
:11-
Y2^:V
^22^:Y
b
b^11-
b b
b 11
V:Y:^:
b U1-
^2:U:1^:^:
b b
^
21--
:^::U::
::: :
:-V111
:^bZ-
bU1-
:U111
b b
:^11-:
1^:U1
b ^-^ :
:Y--1
^^2Ub
^ :
f Y:
b b b b
:--Y :
1-112
b b b
: ^
b^ b
f b b
11-1-1
b b
^ ::
-:Y:12--:
b ^ b
: ^^
-1^ ::
--Y
^^b^
1b^1--::U
1: ^:
2Y^2Y:
^11:V::
^^ b
Y b -1-
11V1^
2^2^:^::
^:Y2:Y:^::
6:V:V11
U1111
:Y:2:
:1VY:
:2^1^1
1U: -
:V:Y:V:
^1:V22Y
:2^1^1
:U:2V:
-2]2^:Y1VY
:U::^2^:
--11-
:V2^b
2U:U1
2U1:U2:V
:^:
^^Y1V:
---1-
1V:Y12U
b ^1
---1:Y2
U2^1U1V11V
11^:^:U
V1:2Y
^ ::1U
--1-:
:^ ^
^^
1111-
:U2U2
1:1V9^1
-1---
62U:2
^:V:
:1^:Y2
:^^^1
1-111
2U:V::U
--11-
111111
2]2:^
11--1
11111
1111212
12:1^Y
b^:V1:
1^2Y2
11U2U
-1----
::V::
:1^1V
b b^:^
^1U1U
-1-11
-1-1-
--1--
1211-
1^2^::
:^:^^1
::U:2
--1111
VY2Y:
-U11-1--
11Vb^2:V
:U:::
11V11
11-11
21^:Y
^12111
^:^2:
1:VY:
:^:1^
:V:Y::
2^21
-121-11-
11-11
11-11
V:Y:Y2
1-112^Y:
b ^ b b b b
1:V:2
11-1-1
111U1
b^ 211
^ ^
22Y:^
1U2112:
b b
:2:1 :
1-1-b
b ^
b^2:^
:
^ b
::U:2
^ V:b^
:1-1-
-----
^ ^ b
1U2:Y:2
:Y:1^1^
1--1-
b
^ b
^ ^^b
:Y2]2
-1111-
^ :^^
5U2YV
b b
: ^
: :^:
b b
b ^
U2Y2Y:2
-1-:U2U
1: ::^2--
U:6U2
2Y2:^^
^ ^
YV:Y::Y^
: ^ :^^
:U2U 1
^ ^
^ b ^
b b b
2:U:Y2
^^:^b
1-1^1
1U1V9U2
V:^:Y2^:
^111^-
^^:V^ ^^^
Y2YV:Y
11-1U:
^ b
2Y:2:
b b ^
^ ^
b b
11-1-
:^2:U
-1-1211
:^11-
1:U:2^b
b^21
92Y2Y::
--1--
1U:29
V:1U1
111---
:Y:U2
2^2^Y2:
b b b
:U:V:
Z^_^:^
-----
:VY: b
:1V:V
:Y:2Y
^^^11
1:Y::U:V:Y^12Y2Y:
2:U2:
21^1^b
U:1211
:^:^
:VY1U:V
V1V:U
:Y:V1
b b
:-:1-1b
V:Y2^
:^1V
b b
b b ^
:Y:VU2
:U2U:Y2
^^:V5:^:
^:U2U
:11U:
b^^
U2U21
b
:V:U11
V1U::
b ^ ^ ^
:Z:^:
b b
::Y2^^^:2
:Y21U2
b b
b b b
:^:V::^
^ b^ b
b b b b f
b ^ b
b
^ b^
b ^
1V::1V
b
:^^VY
b b
f b
b b b
b b b
b b ^ ^ b
^ b ^ ^
^ b f
^ b b
^^::^:
^1U2^
2U12^1
^^ b b
b f b
b b f
b b
b b
b ^ b
f^ b ^
_ ^
^ ^
^ b ^ b
b b
b b
b b
b b
^ b
b f b
^ b
^ ^ b ^ b
^ b b
^ ^
b b
b f
^ 2--
^ b
> ^ :
b b
b f b
:12Y2
b b
^ b b
b b
^ f ^ b b
b^ b
b
b b
b b b b b b
^ ^ b
: ^>
^ ^
f b b
^ ^
61^1:U
b b
b
^ b
^ b
b b
b b
b ^ b
b ^ b
b b b
^ b
^ ^ b
:2UU:
b b
2Y:2U1V
b b b
_ b b
b ^
2^:Y:
^^^^b^^ :
^^ ^
b ^^::
^ ^ b
b ^
U^ b
:_b^^
b
^ ^ b
:U:U1
b b
b b
^ ^ b
b b b b^
: : ^^^^b^ ^
^^^^^
^b^^b
b b
b bf
f ^
b b
: :^
b b b
b b b
b b b
b b b
c b b
b^
b^ ^ ^
::V1V12
2^::11
b b
^^ b
^ b
b b b
b b
^ b
2U112
b b
b ^ b
:^2^^
b
^ b b
b b f
^ b
b b
b b b
b ^ ^ b ^
b b^
:Y:1V1V
^b^^
^ b b
:112:2:^
b b
b^ b
^ b
b ^ ^
:2^12
^:^:U:
:^^^^
b b^
^ b
b f b
^ b
212U::^:
:^^^^
b b
b b
^ ^ b
_ b b
1111-
1V:2^:
b b b
^b^^^:
b b
b ^
1V:Y^
b^ b
b b ^ :
b f
b b
^b^ ^
: ^ :
^ ^^^^^^
b bb
2Y2^Y::V:
b b
b ^
b ^^^^^^^^
f ^ ^
^^^:^
:V:1VY
::^::2^:
b b
^^^Z^:
b b
^1V:U
b b b
^ 9
^:^^:^:^:
b b ^
b b
^^^^^^
^ ^
::Y^22U2
^
^:^^^:
:^^Y^:
^:1:^
b ^ b
^^ :^
^^^ ^^:^b:
^^^:^::
b b
^^b :
:1U21
^:^2^:
b b b f
^^^ :
:V::V:1V
::^2^:
^
b b ^
:^^ ^
2:VY:
^b ^^b
^^^^: ^
2^^::
::^:^^:
:2^2^
:^^::
1U2]1
:^:::^:
: :^^^
VY:2Y2
:Y:1^6::
b
2^2^:
^:Y:21
b b
^2^2^
:V:U2:
^:2Y:
2Y:V:
V1^1V1
:2^2^2
2U:U2
-1121
:2V9V
b f
2:U:U:U:
VY:U2^2U
V11V:
2U1--
:V1^1^12^:2
^::^::
^ b
^ ^ b
^^b^::
:U2Y2V:YVYV
:^:^:
:U2:2:
1-1-1-
1V12^
b b
:1V9U2
2^:Y:
2^:Y2
111-1
Y129V
U11--
p648-2
ftsTitleOverride
The Modern Novel (page 2)
ftsTitle
Ernest Hemingway is considered one of the 'lost generation', the group of disillusioned intellectuals and writers from Europe and America after World War I. His reputation was made with A Farewell to Arms (1929), and his later works include non-fiction studies of the macho pastimes that he his now associated with, namely bull-fighting and big-game hunting. His novel on the Spanish Civil War, For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), is perhaps his best-known work. Hemingway took his own life in 1961 after years of illness.
The Modern Novel (2 of 3)
Continuities
In contrast with the formal experimentation of the Modernists, a substantial number of writers continued to work within more traditional artistic frame works: either as a reaction to the radically experimental and culturally ulitist stance of the Modernists, or simply out of a conservative preference for more conventional forms and styles. This technical conservatism does not necessarily imply a conservative approach to their subjects, and many of these traditionalist writers used their fictions to develop, as the 19th-century novelists had done, some incisive moral and social criticism of the world they lived in.
In France Andru Gide (1869-1951), and in Germany Thomas Mann (1875-1955) explored issues such as the social alienation of the artist, the decline of European civilization and the oppressive burdens of the past. Both wrote some remarkable shorter novels, such as Gide's The Immoralist (1930) and Mann's Death in Venice (1912), as well as working in the traditional full-length novel form. Gide's The Counterfeiters (1927) and Mann's The Magic Mountain (1924) both combined a critical perspective on contemporary Europe with a relatively conservative approach to fictional technique.
In Britain, E.M. Forster (1879-1970) displayed a concern for the imaginative life of humanity and emphasized the need for sincerity and sensitivity in human relationships. Howard's End (1910) shows English society in a state of change and expresses Forster's idealized wish for a union of the imaginative aspects of human nature with more practical values. In the highly symbolic novel A Passage to India (1924), Forster's concern for spontaneity and friendship is played out against a background of racial difference in British-ruled India. The English novelist Evelyn Waugh (1903-66) began writing in the late 1920s. In Decline and Fall (1928) and A Handful of Dust (1934) he incorporated the comedy of manners and social satire into the novel form, depicting with great humor the frivolous futility of the post-World War I generation. Later works such as Brideshead Revisited (1945), with its par able of the decline of a Catholic aristocracy, introduced deeper notes of elegy and pessimism. The novels of Graham Greene (1904-91) express a similarly difficult relationship with Catholicism: but where Waugh's more conservative sympathies lay with the English past and with the landed aristocracy, Greene was drawn towards Communism and to the political landscape of the modern world. His major novels, compelling explorations of failure and betrayal, are usually set in colonial or Third World locations: The Power and the Glory (1940) in Mexico and The Heart of the Matter (1948) in Africa. Greene also experimented with popular fictional forms such as the political thriller (The Honorary Consul; 1973) or the spy novel (The Human Factor; 1978). These genres are also brilliantly parodied in lighter novels that Greene termed 'entertainments', including the ironically comic Our Man in Havana (1958).
Other British writers continued to extend prose fiction along these more traditional lines. Anthony Powell (1905- ) observed the upper middle-class social landscape in a sequence of twelve novels, A Dance to the Music of Time (1951-75). William Golding (1911- ), in novels such as Lord of the Flies (1954) and The Spire (1964), pared down the novel to a modern form of the fable. Iris Murdoch (1919- ) combined fiction and philosophy in novels such as The Bell (1958) and The Sea, The Sea (1978), which explore complicated sexual relationships within melodramatic and highly symbolic plots.
In America, Saul Bellow (1915- ) also combined technical conservatism with deep and painful fictional exploration of the self and civilization, notably in Herzog (1964). In Australia Patrick White (1912-90) achieved an almost Dostoevskian intensity in novels such as Voss (1957) - an epic celebration of a heroic Australian past - and Riders in the Chariot (1961).
The strength of the great Realist tradition in Russia, and the post-revolutionary concern with social realism, ensured the continuity of traditional fictional forms in writers such as Boris Pasternak (1890-1960), whose critical view of Soviet Russia, Dr Zhivago, was published in Italy in 1957, and Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918- ), whose short story One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovitch (1962) exposed the world of Stalin's labor camps. Mikhail Sholokhov (1905-84), a writer broadly in sympathy with the Soviet Communist system, achieved in his four-volume epic novel And Quiet Flows the Don (1928-40) an artistically remarkable representation of post-revolutionary Russia.
Nineteen Eighty-four. George Orwell's nightmarish fable of a totalitarian future has had a deep and lasting impact on the 20th century, not least in the passing of many of its words and phrases - notably 'Freedom is Slavery' and 'Doublespeak' - into the English language. Illustrated here is a scene from the 1984 film version. Winston Smith is dominated by the face of 'Big Brother' - the all-powerful head of the ruling party.
The Modern Novel (3 of 3)
Post-Modernist innovation
Modernist writers produced a type of fiction in which the world of reality is shaped and colored by the activity of the individual character. 'Post-Modernist' writers have extended the Modernist search into the potentialities of human consciousness and the distinction between the individual and the objective world by means of a deliberate subversion of fictional conventions. This has made possible a whole range of new fictional techniques, opening up serious fiction to fantasy, surrealist allegory and 'Magic Realism'.
Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977), an expatriate Russian, can be regarded as a major and typical practitioner of the 'Post-Modernist' novel. He is best known for his parable of sexual destruction, Lolita (1958), but his flexible uses of narrative and playful linguistic fertility can be seen at their most inventive in Pale Fire (1962). The sophisticated technical experiments of the French Nouveau Roman ('New Novel') also testify to the positive effects of modern fiction's liberation from Realism. This term refers to the work of a group of French writers, the best known being Marguerite Duras (1914- ) and Alain Robbe-Grillet (1922- ), who share a belief that the traditional novel, with its realistic narrative and omniscient narrator, creates an illusion of order and significance that is no longer (if it ever was) a true depiction of reality. The typical Nouveau Roman, such as Robbe-Grillet's Jealousy (1957), destabilizes narrative and avoids imposing on its subject matter any fixed or final interpretation. The impact of these developments on the British novel can best be seen in the work of John Fowles (1926- ). The French Lieutenant's Woman (1969) is a semi-historical novel that contrasts the conventions of the Victorian novel with a more modern view of fiction. The novel's modernity lies in its acknowledgment that fiction essentially involves deception and manipulation, Fowles replacing the Victorian conventions with a skeptical and uncertain narrator - a 20th-century anthropologist who interrupts the action with his comments - and an open-ended narrative, including three alternative endings.
These writers tended to concentrate their innovations on formal devices and techniques, while their narratives still occupied the traditional territory of the novel, continuing to portray the lives of people in contemporary society. Elsewhere Post-Modernist fiction has moved further away from the landscape of social realism and entered realms of dream, myth and fantasy. The Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986) developed the Post-Modernist preoccupation with the complex relations of fiction, truth and reality, and in collections of short stories such as A Universal History of Infamy (1935) and Fictions (1945) he established the form of Magic Realism, based on the premise that myth, fantasy and dream are no less 'real' than the familiar territory of social realism traditionally occupied by the novel. The Colombian writer Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1928- ) has also mixed the ordinary and the fantastic, the real and the supernatural, in a manner typical of Magic Realism. His best-known novel, One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967), combines the unexpected and the everyday, the normal and the inexplicable in the fragmented and dispersed narrative style characteristic of Post-Modernist fiction. Affinities with Magic Realism can also be detected in the novels of the reclusive American Thomas Pynchon (1937- ). Gravity's Rainbow (1973) employs a blend of fantasy, black humor, grotesque sexuality and esoteric language to portray human alienation and the chaos of contemporary society.
In Germany Genter Grass (1927- ), in comic and experimental novels such as The Tin Drum (1959) and Dog Years (1965), similarly questioned the status of truth and reality in the modern world, but with strong political preoccupations. Although most Post-Modernist fiction is based on a skeptical view of reality. Grass - a committed and outspoken socialist - represents the possibility of reconciling Post-Modernist art with a positive social engagement. And there could be no better illustration of the power of Post-Modernist fiction to challenge and outrage authority than the career of the Anglo-Indian novelist Salman Rushdie (1947- ). An exponent of Magic Realism, in Midnight's Children (1981) he offered to Western culture a new and original perspective on the East that was readily and rapidly embraced. But when Rushdie applied his blend of myth and reality, philosophy and fantasy to an examination of Islam from the viewpoint of a non-believer in The Satanic Verses (1988), he caused great offense to many Muslims. The late Ayatollah Khomeini, the fundamentalist spiritual leader of Iran, sentenced Rushdie to death for blasphemy, forcing the writer into hiding.
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* REALISM AND NATURALISM
* THE NOVEL IN 19TH- CENTURY BRITAIN
* AMERICAN LITERATURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND MODERNISM
* MODERN POETRY IN ENGLISH
* LITERARY THEORY AND LITERARY CRITICISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
U,T0,T,
1x0P1
L,T,T
P(P0T0,PT
T,T,T
10,P,U0P)
T1,x0t(P0
P(0P0y,
8L0101*
P,L,T0,Q1,
P91,Q1,T
1T1P90x1
0T,1t1
Txy00P
T1T,0
$tL$U
$PptPp
tPL$6
PLtLP
,tp,$,H
,H,xP
ttpPPLS
t,pPHP
t(H,L
pPPLxP5
LHPt(,
xPHtLtpPPx
MtPt$
t0T1P
PPp,t(,L
(,L,P(tx
,PTU0
,LtLt
,p,PL
$,p,PLPLt
t(P,L
$PLtt
TPtpPt
PPpPt
PLt,pPt($
P(HtLP,%
$T,PLH,L
,0P(P,
(t,t(P#
L,T,0
P(PLtT
P(,xP)T
,L0t(U
P,$,-
U0P(-
$PpP,
L0TT,L
P(P(U0P0
P,TTP
0P(0P
,xTP,
Pt(,:
5TPTP
PLP($P:
1T1T0
PLP,,TS
0P1U,T
x,x,B
QPU001
(T,T1,x0,
t0UTP
1QTU91
,PTy90
0TPTP1TT
1xTP,
$,,LP
,,9U0
PpHtLP
,TTU0
L0x,10X
$,LPI
$0P1x
,x0,T
L00TT5
$HxP$
,pxPL
$ttp,
tp,$P$
LxPx,p
U,,L$
H,$P(
$$,$,
p$,LPP
P,(P,$
,$P($,
,(HPL,P
P$,P(
P(tpPP(H,
(T,0P
,t(P,$
tPLt,LP
p,P(P
(P,L,P,(
P(tP(t$P(
($,LHl
Pp,t($P
L,,$L,
H,H,L
ttPt(,p
$,PLt
L$P(P
,$,L,,P
t$tP(
(P(,t(P
PH,p,(,
PtpPx
(,p,L$
PP$tHP(PLt
P0,UT
t,p,,L
T0x9,U
PPLPP,
$,P,(PL
(tH,PH,,
,P10\U
pPPLP(
Ttp,t,
10T1T
,$,PH
tPp,PHT
,H,$t(
,(P,($P(P
PpPt(,P
0P00t1U\P0
Q00T1x0
P(P($,
110U9T1
tH,tL
(P,L$,P
(P,$,LP,pP
$,L,H
H,L$,L
L,,L$tP
pt(H,L
,P,,(
T,1x11T11n
$,$,p
P(P(PPL,L
PpPtPt($
tT,T0P1P,
T0T0T
P($,$,L
H,ptLPPL
P0x0y
Tpt,(,
t(t,(t
$P(1T10U0
-0y00
tP(P$
(HPLP$$,L
PH,PLt,l,p
L,P01,]
xPP(tp
H,,p,$,P
$,($,(
tHt(ttpPp,
L0U,U\
,pt(,,
Pttp,P
T-0UU\U
$$,lt
$,LP,LHPHP
$tPptpP
,01y1
(,(,,L,(P$
$,LH(,tHPL
,lPHt(P,
0]x1]
P$,L,
P(P,L,$tLt
pPptPl,L
1x10]0
,,$PL,HLP
ptlPpt
p,T0U
TT10U0U
$P,PLPP,
t(,t(
tPpPpPt$
(P,(HP(
,01U00T1T
tLtPp
tltpPt(
L$,($P
1UTUUx
P($,H,
t(t$HHtlP
TT0U0
p,PL$
,HPp,
Ppt(t
T10x,
PH,p,HPt
LPHtLP
p,p,,
UTTU0]10
,(t,O
H$$,pPlt
t,$,P(
,P(T0P
t(,p,
P(P,LP
(1-UT10U0
LttL,
,L,($$t(t,
HPLPtHPt(t
,pPpPp
$$,($,L
,$,L,H,pP
U0T0T1
P($,L$
,pPtLtpltp
PpTtP
,(PH,(
x-\1x1
ltL$,
L,tLPplPlP
LtPpH
H,L$,(
Ll,pt,P
$,PH,(
LtPtltLt
H$Pp,
H,pPtpPttp
tLtLtL
L,t(PL,tH
L,L,P
TtL,p,,
tt(tLHPp
$,H$,tx(
tPL,L,
,1\1\0UT
PL,,LHt
pPtPL$
H,$,(P,$t(
tp,p$
P,L,H
x0U0U
lt(P$tP
y,(,pP
PLP(t,$
p,PPptH
(tP$P
P(H,LH,
xPLPx,LP,
$PPL,
pPtLHlPt
Ltt,$
HP(H,p
P$PHPLPP(,
(t,P(P,L$
08U818U0
,p,P(tp$pl
tpltTtLP
P(PL,
,$,L,(,
P(P(,M,
$1T01TTU0
P(tPp
l,tLP$
x,t($
$P(,L
01U0-
T,t($
$,$$,L,p
$HtLtL
p,P(P
,0U0U0
1T,]0U
,L$P(
L,tLt(
$,L,$
$H,pltptPt
,$t$t(,
pPP(,P,
L,$,$,$
LH,(H$
($PL,t($t
PlPpltLt,L
P(t,p,P
TpPTtL,L,
P$,,P
,H,H,$P(P
P(ltpPpPPL
(P(,,
,P,T]
TUT9T1x
PP(tl
HtLtP
$H$x,p,,(
P(P,(P
9x18U0T
L,$PPpPHt
(,H,P
P$$,P
]0T1T
P(tP,
PpP,x
,P,L,
x]UT10y1,
,,0TPP
P(HHPp
1\1T9T,T0-
Pt(t,
P,$,p,P$P
U,P1x0T0U9
100T,
l,,$,P
PLPP(
$,$P(
TTU18U
$,$,L,
y,U\T1x1T1
L0T180
]01x09T
P(P,$P
PtTP*
00U01x1]
\]1T0U
(,U0]8T
,$PPt
\11x1
L,0y0T9
8U1T1
,P(P(
$lPptP$
P0TU0y
\TU9T,1
P,T0U
$,$P$$
10T10Q
T1\1y
x1U0U1
$P(H,$$
,y0yT
]U0U0y
tp$HP(
0U0x90
y01T1T
y]8y9
x00y00
,P(,$
yTTUT
]Y]U9U
P(,P($
T]]U9
10T10T1T
LTP,p,,
1t1x1
U0U0]09
,tTtL
TxtPL
P,P0U0
1]x9]0U0U0
1x]T9y
01x]\9
0]0y8
(x,P($
0P0y9
TU0]190
$,p,,
TL,T,
T,T01
\01x1T
x9x9U\U\
,L,$t(
8U\U8U1
9T]]9
Lx,L$t
($,(P
]U9]U\
tL,PT
,P(UT
]9]8]TT
U\9]T]
9T]1]18
9]1x99
tPP(HP,H
p,LPL
PLTP$
,TTU8y
PHPH,P(
$,L$,
,(PH$
L,$t(,$$,P
x,UU8U]
,p$,L,,
P,LP$
tlx,Hp,P
P,9x0]
\9y9]1]9
t$,P(P
H,L,,t(t
y0UU]0]
(P,(P
,t(PLP,
9]911
,p,LPtPL,$
0U\y]
,$LPt(,p,t
,t,L,pPP
,L,$P(t
]\]]8U
LP(P(,
,L1xU]\
LPHPH,HPp
,pPPpPt(
P,L,PH,L,p
P1y0y9
,p,P(tt
tt(P,
$ttLt,Lt
,LPtLC
P,(tt(Plt
P(,P
,0UT]
,tLtPp
xPt,$
tpPP(t
pPp,PLt
PpttP
(,$P$$t
$,y\y
T,P(,
$PL,P(PxT
,pPtP,
P1xy]
9]1y0
t(TTt0
9y9x:8]]
\y18U\9
,pPtPpP
PL,L,$
,Tx]T
]]9\1]0U0
LPPHP
9x0y0
x10T9T
P,(,P
(P(,P$
8UT91
0U0U011T
t(PH,L
1T1T0
($,p$x,
Lt(,L,,
0]TT101x1
01T1U0U11
LPPp,,(
y0T0U01]0T
,LPtpP
,HP(P,$
P,(P,P$P(P
(P,L,L,
$,L,tTt
px,t(P,,
,PLxPPTP(,
$t($,(P,
1T1T1U8
9T911T
(,$,LP
$,$t(t
,P(t,L,
$,$$,
L,$$,
]]9U0
P(,Pt(P
(PPpP,p,t,
L,,$,
$x,$P
$PH,P(,(P
,(P,L0,,PT
9]9U01T
\0]T]\]]0
L,,L$PL,
p,PLx
,L,(t
$Pp,PPp,pP
pxPL,p
$,(H,pPL,
,$,P(
(,t,L,
L,,P(
0101\1T1TU
t(P,(,P
$,L,P
PpPPt(P
,$tTP
,P(tHHP,P
$,LPP
PLP(,
9T1TT
,T,L,(,H,
PpPLx
PtPL$P(,P,
P,L,P(,P
L,P(,P(
x9T1T0
10U0T
P,L,,L
p,(t0P
P,T,U
0y]T9
xtPPL
t,LPPH,t(P
,,$,L
P,P($
$PL,,(t,
UT1U\U8
t(t,(,tLtL
(P,$,$
HPL,P(
PtTTP(tt
$t(,P
$p,P,P(
90x]1
LT,(,
P$PP(PLP,
1\9U0
]U]]T0U00
,$,(t(
P$PLtLt,L,
U8U90U0
0ttLP
,$t,pPP(P,
(,tPpHTP,p
PP($,(
]01T0
,P(x,(t,(P
,$,P(t,p
P,p,t(P
,LPP(P
p650-1
X&0'
ftsTitleOverride
Popular Literature (page 1)
ftsTitle
Agatha Christie (in 1949) was the quintessential whodunit crime writer. Her work, which includes over sixty novels, is now among the most famous in crime fiction.
Popular Literature (1 of 3)
Generations of critics, teachers and parents have railed against the pernicious influence of popular fiction upon impressionable minds. An iron curtain was drawn between the literary high culture of the 'hardback', characterized by moral seriousness, aesthetic decorum and intellectual rigor, and the popular entertainment of the 'paperback', based on crude sensationalism and mass market appeal. In recent years, however, critics have begun to deconstruct this crude binary opposition. There has been a growing realization that the genres of popular literature, although often formulaic in nature, nevertheless have their roots in the traditional literary canon, employing models and conventions established within the 'great tradition' of English literature.
Popular literature possesses its own distinctive merits, often interacting in exciting and innovative ways with other media such as film, TV and radio. It is now studied within many universities as an academic subject in itself and as a cultural barometer of the society that produces and consumes it.
Detective stories
The literary pedigree of popular literature is clearly demonstrated in the history of detective fiction and other mystery novels. Indeed, it has been argued that one of the earliest fictional detectives is the character of Oedipus in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex (430 BC), who solves the mystery of his parentage and the curse on the city of Thebes, but discovers in the process that he is both villain and sleuth.
It is more common to trace the origins of the genre to the 19th-century English novel of sensation, a type of fiction abounding in astonishing happenings and guilty secrets. The most accomplished practitioner of the genre was William Wilkie Collins (1824-89). His novel The Moonstone (1868) is considered by many to be the first full-length detective story and is distinguished by ingenious plotting and meticulous descriptive detail.
The American writer Edgar Allan Poe (1800-49) had provided a model 25 years earlier in such stories as 'The Murders in the Rue Morgue' (1841). But it was later British writers such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930), creator of the brilliant and enigmatic Sherlock Holmes, and G.K. Chesterton (1874-1936), author of the 'Father Brown' stories, who established the popularity of the genre.
The 1920s and 1930s are sometimes described as 'the golden age' of the detective novel. During this period the 'classic' English detective story was developed and refined by such writers as Dorothy L. Sayers (1893-1957), creator of the aristocratic sleuth Sir Peter Wimsey, and Agatha Christie (1890-1976), the most famous of all writers of crime fiction, whose two main detectives are the highly cerebral Belgian Hercule Poirot and the elderly spinster Miss Marple.
In the USA a vogue for 'hard-boiled' crime fiction, characterized by a tough hero in a seedy urban setting, was established by Dashiel Hammett (1914-61) in such novels as The Maltese Falcon (1930). This trend gathered pace after World War II in the detective stories and thrillers of Raymond Chandler (1888-1959) and James M. Cain (1892-1977). A number of Chandler's novels, notably The Big Sleep (1939), and The Long Goodbye (1953), featuring the lonely tough-guy hero Philip Marlowe, were made into successful films.
In much contemporary detective fiction the emphasis has shifted from solving crimes to understanding both the psychology of the criminal - as can be seen in Thomas Harris's (1940- ) The Silence of the Lambs (1982) and the work of P.D. James (1920- ) and Ruth Rendell (1930- ) and the psychology of the detective, as in Martin Cruz Smith's (1942- ) Gorky Park (1981). The 'legal thrillers' of the US writers John Grisham and Scott Turow (1949- ), which straddle the worlds of detective fiction and the conventional thriller (see below), enjoyed massive commercial success from the late 1980s.
Spy novels and thrillers
The forerunners of the modern spy thriller are the adventure novels of the Scots writer John Buchan (1875-1940). The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915) and Greenmantle (1916) are spy stories marked by simple characterization and hectic action. In stark contrast to the stiffly English heroism of Buchan's protagonist Richard Hannay is the suave toughness of James Bond - spy hero of the thrillers of Ian Fleming (1908-64). The exotic settings, technical marvels and stylized blend of sex and violence in such novels as Casino Royale (1953) and Diamonds are Forever (1956) have been made familiar to millions in highly popular film versions.
The spy novels of John le Carru (the pen name of John Cornwell; 1931- ), which blend austere realism with elaborate plots, have found favor with the public and academic critics alike. The mild-mannered secret agent George Smiley appears in many of le Carru's novels, notably The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1963) and Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy (1974). The latter reached an even wider audience though successful TV serialization.
The classic thriller has also entertained millions in the cinema. Stephen Spielberg's cinematic blockbusters featuring the resourceful 'Indiana Jones' have clear 19th-century antecedents in the work of H. Rider Haggard (1856-1925) and Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936). Both wrote mystery and adventure novels set in exotic imperial locations, for example Haggard's King Solomon's Mines (1886) and Kipling's Kim (1901).
* HOLLYWOOD
* WORLD CINEMA
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
----1)
--------M
$11Q-)11)11)1)--1
11-1Q
1Q1)1
11U1-
U1y1U
---1111
QzU1y
$-U-1
$-M1$
U1yyU
Q)Q1-
1U1--1V
Q,)$$,Q)
H-)Q)-
-Q$--$
$-U--
--1Q)
M-M,-M
11--11^1
Q-M1-M
M-1)1--$--$
-I-P)Q1Q)-
I1$1)
,--$-M
M1$)Q1$
11U--
P)-,-
P-)-1
--1--
M,-%--
11$%$1
1Q(--1
$-M$-
--121
-Q$1-
1111-
1-,$Q1
-1-1-%,
Q1$1I
-1,--U
I1$-U
-1-11
-1M%$1
-Y$,Q$
$)P$Q
U121U
P)$-)
Q-$1-M-
11Q1)11MUQ
11-111
-1U1U11111
)Q111
-11-1
P)1-)
$-$U-
P1$-1
yQ$1-M-
11111U
Q)y111
U$-(Q)
$$$-$--,
---1-
Q$----
1--y1-1
-$-Q1y-
11),-P
$1$-)
U-$1Q
$-1$1Q
-----Q),1
P)Q--------
1--11
I-)$y
1U$1-Q)Q
-Q)Q-
,-%--
-Q)--y
y-)1Q-(--P
--$y-$
PU--L
,y1My
-M,M-
$1-(Q-1)---
$Q)-,U
y-Q1---Q-(Q
y-)Q$1-L
P)Q1QUQ(1Q(Q(--M,
--$U-(Q
11U111
PU$-I,
Q-%1-1-L--M
1U11UU11---11)1
U---$
-U--M-
$-P)1%1
1U111U1U1-11-
%y-Q)-)---M-Q
111--
1U111-1
1-11U11-
Q$,)$-L
)Q(y-(Q-$1Q,Q-(Q-,)Q1
U-1-1)P---
-11-1111
y-M,Q
y%Py-1Q
)Q)-M-Q)$
,)%1$$
11U11
--L-,
y-IY)
H-$y-,U
Q),y-LU
u)-Q--,Q1-$
----%QUQ
111-11
PV$y1$1-
y,%y-Q
Q(y-)
1--11
-11-1
P1-L-%1
(Q-MU
Q-$U-H1$1I,U
UP)1-)1-M-Q)$
-,-11
)1Uy-Q-1--11-1
%P)Q-
-U$VH1
q-,M-Q,
Q-%P)Q,QU
yI-1-
-1-1U1
-ZU%PQq-YU-M1111
1-111------
------
PU--y
Q-,M,Q)1Q-
1-M-y-y)Q
Q)QU-
-L---1U
111-11-
U-tMt-
I-$--
1111--
-1H-)QV$U-
-$-L-y-Ly-1%
Q--M-U--,1M1y-$-
-,M-,$
$----
1-MPq-1U
1-1-1
--1--
------
%y$VP
y$UQ)
y-)Q-)-QU
-M-,M
yI,uu)Q1
--1U111
$-p--
Q-$VU-
u--y-
-(y$U-L1
-M-M1QUU,Q
UP-)P-M-PU
$-$-(
1--(Q,$
1-puLQ)1Q1
-I,--
----1
,--)-$U-(-
-LQ--y
1P%Q)u-$U--M-
UQ)-Q-Q)P-)-y
$-Q)-QU
U-(Q(I
)QQpQQU1-
1-%y-,-M
$Q1QVP)Q
--L-y)Q-)Q,M
1Q-H--$
UQLuu)Q1Q)-1
---1-1-111
(-$1y
Q-M-,
Q-)Q)y
U-(Q)H
QUQ)--1-1
-111--
Q)y-%UU
y-QUQ
q1y)y-)
z-P)QUQ,y-
1$Q%,)$
-MQtMQU
)QLQ1$
-11-111
---1)1-1
---)P--)U
y-My--M
y-L--
M-M-Q
M-QUQ),-1y
-$-$-y
y-)-$
11M-(Q$
y-puu-U1
)tI-M
PQL---1
1-11-1111111
y-1M,1QL
y1-q1-U
y,)--1u--y-L-QyM-yY
1--$Q(%
MQPqQM11-
,%tM,
-11111-
-1-11-1
y-Q-1u
u1,y--U%P)QUQPQ
Q-LUI
UQ1Q,u1-MUQ----
y-P)-y
1Q)P)I
u,qQt-
)upQ-
-11-1)U
--1-11-
U--M-
-P1-M1
yVQQQ
Q-IUQ-U
y-u-)
(y-y)1q--UUQ
1-P%Q,$
-qQpu)U1-1
-lQu1
-1-111-1
u1Qy1M
y-QUQ1UQ)
M--$U--M1)P1Q-y1--U-y
1Q(-(%
u-puPQ
)$uL1
11-1111-
)Q)Q-M-M,
u1-y-QU-M-)P)Q)-QU-$
y-QV$
U--H-L$
-puQq1y1
,quQM
)P---
1111-1-1-11-
1L-Q),Q
-(M-M1I,y-Q)Q
y1Q)Q
z-Q1UQN1,yQ)y
Q(y-UQUy
11-L-u-
quQpu)
)uLy1
-11-11-
-1111
111111-
y-)--
QU-Q)z,Q
y-MU-,y
%y-)Q),y
1$$1-u-Q
1U-I,)H
QPqPu-y
-qP1-1
-1-11Q
1-1--U111
Q-,Q)-U
y-LU%UQUQ
z1IUQ-y-,y
M-z-1Q%P1QUQ-yUQM-Q-,y-yU-
-MVPUQ-y
)Q,)P%
uLuqQUU-U
L%Pu1
--1-1
111-1
111-11
)Q,M-1)QU
,y--zQ(
y-M1-q
,MUQ,M,-yUQ-y)y--)Q
-z-Vy-$-MQU-
1Q,)u)P
-utQqMU
M1-Q1M1
M-1)Q-1L-yVQ)z-(y
M,y-y1QUQ)-)Q--MUQ-1Q(Q
uy-Ly-$
UQUP)z,1$
1Q)P%P%
QQqQ-
LUu1-111
1-1--1111111
-U%1)-1M-z
z,QUQ-yQ-P)y
y--y-U-Q)-M,VPMQ)-MQ$UQQ-,
y1-z-y1UQ
1Q,)P-
y-uLuQU
-11111
11111
-11-11U
,1-,-
Q-1M-,y-LUU-$VQ%UQ(U
$z-LVQ-1)P
-u-QUQ-1QUQV$
U--M,q-$
MUy11
y,upQ-
QUu--11
-1-11U11-1)U111)
--1--
M1--M1
UQ,z,M1-yUQUQ)
P)-LVQUQ
yu-VPQ-y-z
11M,I-L
-pQQ1
uQquQU
)mQt1
-IL1-1-11
-11--111
Q11--
)y-)y
y-)y-L
y-u1(-y
UQUyQ
1Q,)QP
yQLuLu1y11
-11-11
V1P1Q),1M,z-QU
UQ)Q-Q
z$VPUQU-$
U-(Q,)P
$-)P--
QUu1-11--11-
--U1111
u1-y-
UQ(u-MzP
(Q-(--1Q
P)Q)y-
U-Q,)u$
uMtQq1y
Uyy1-11
1111U-U11-1-11U1
UM--Q1-(-,-
-LVU-y%Q
PUy-yU
1%,)QM
$-(Q-11y
]yMPQqPU
111U11-
VMz,M1Q^
y1-y-QU
yU-UQ,UMUQ)-
zQM--P)-,yVM
I,u$$
1-11U1
U-y-y
z-u1Q
q1QUy-VyQy-P-,-U-
-)y1y-
1-)Q,-M,
11-1-11111-
111)111
-1-1U
1)P-Q)P-Y
UQMU-UMy-y1-z1I
,M1-yVQUQUUQ
1zUyzy
--z,u-Vy
U1Q(-q,
U-L-uMQ(-
-111U11
-111U1-
Q11--1-
u--1QM
y-MUQ
UQy-QUy-
MUy-y)u
--%,Q,M
-UU1uPyy-
-1111
111--
)-Q)-M1QQU-UU
Q1UQUQ)y--
y-QUQU-M,y-Q-
,UQUQ
,M-q-
-11-11
1M1--
Q)1y-
M-u1QUQ-y-qy
yVPUQUM-Q-yV
yUyMy--$
11M1U
-11L---
-11U1
-1)--y
y1-z-,z
-MUQUU
1y-Pzy-QPQMQ-P-Q1)Q1
$--y-qU-$
11----
P1Q1QU
y-My-MUy
)P)uyVyQUz
U111-1M
)-UV-
1U-11
M---Q)
Q1UQUQ
-M--M
y-Q,--(Q-P-Q
MUQU-,
1)-1--
111Y1
--1Q-
1-11-----1
y-MVQUQ
-MUQ)y-
1-z,u)PQ-
yVyyU
1-L-Q
111---
11)111
M-1Q11-y1-
UQ,z1Qy
-MUQ)-M
yzu----Q(Q--M^111Q
yQ)z,y1y-M
-uUPUQ1MQ-y-Q,)Uu
yqyQyUU-U
1111-
-1-11
-UQy-
1q-y1u
UzyQ--P--M1-u1
-1U11
-Y1U1
---QU1M
QUM-zUy-y-My-QQy-u1u)y-Q-)uUyyUyy1uUU-
I1$-)-
-1y1y-
U1111
1U111--
1--1)-UQ)
-QUQUu)y-y)-M-QUyyy-MQQQQUu)V
-,-Q,
-U-U--
1-M-Q1y
zUyUz-)UUz-L
),y-)uUy
yUyMQQ1
P-111Y1
)U1-z
yZU--
1ZQ1yy1y
)--1U
----M-1Q)MUQ--
Y-yuUy-y
UQ--Q(y
--11)QUQ
Q-z,MVQUMy--)Q(y
yy-Q,Q-L-Q1-1M
L---$
Q1y1$
-M-Q)
yu-UQy-
y-uQyU
$-UU-
$----
U-y111--
11)-1yQ-q
zu1UQy-MUQM
yUQ-P-M-
-M-1-P--1--1
-P$--
1Q-Q)1-
UMU-y
q-yM-
)P)yU
UQ-)--U
-U11-
1-1111U11U11)Y1
U1--U1)U1
1--U-U
My-y1)y
UQ-P-P)
zy111Q11-1)111-
-1-11)
--1Y1)-
11U111U1--
M1M11M1
UQ(Q-L-u
UQ)Q1yz
yUUVy
1111M
--11--Y-1L
U-U1z
111-1
1-U-1Q
qUy-MUu-yVy
M)Q)yUQ-y
--,11-111y1
---y-)
u-Q(Q
yQQ)QyUyU
11--11
Q1U1y
,1-1Q
Myy-QUyU
-)QMy1QU
)1--111-
Q-----
1)1y-
-Q1)yUyUyQ-q
)Q-MU
Q111U1$
1M11U
1--1y
111U11-
1-1yy-yyy-M-MU
)--1Q
---1)-11
U--MU
U--yVy)P-QUy
-V11U
----1---
)Q-y-y)Q
)U1-)U1y1
111U1-
-1)1111-1-11-1)1U
-1u1UQ-y
UQ-)u
1----M
----1---1-11---1)-1-1
1U-M1UQ-yy-y
Qy11Q
P--Q1
1-1-11--11Q1-111)11-11)1
11Q)yUQUzu--y
UQUUQ
1--)1)-
1111--
--1-1
11-1111111-11--11-1U
-z-y-(UUyy
--,--
$11111
U1UyZ1Q--
1)11111-111U--U1M11-111-1--1
Q1y-z1Q
-11-1--
1)1-11Q1-111111
-Q1-111
11)y)uU
1-U-y
--,--
1UU---1
1-Q11-U1
1-111)U
1-1-111-11Q1-111U1-U
P----
11111-
1)---
--111
1Q-UzUU
$1,-1Q-1
11U-U1
-1--U-U
Q1-,)
Q11Q1-1
-1-1)
---111
11y1)-
)-,-1
11M111
1Q-Q1
1U1U--1-----,1-
P)U11M111
---11-
---1(
1-,1--1U1Q11M111111)U
111111U
---111
---111Q1
11111
--1--1M
---1)11
YUU-U
1---)-
(-,----11
)-,--1
--Q--
-1--,--1U11
U1Q11
-111z1
---,-
Q--U-P---U
-1)1-1-111U)1
-M111
-1y-1
1-yZU1Q
-1yZ1
1-11-1---1-
-----
-1--1Q
111U1
11U1--
1-111-
1111111
U----
111--1-
1-11-
1-1-1-111U1
1Q11U
U-z1Q1U
11111
1--1Q
1-U1-
1U1)-
1111U1
11-111
-1111--
1-11-1-
-11)1
1yUyy
1-1-1-
)11U1
-11-U
11-1---
1-11--
----1
111--
111-1-1-1
1-11UU
11)-1)-
U91V1
1-11-1-
U1--1-1
----1-
112U9
1--1Y-1
y11---1-
--1U1U]
129U2
1-1-1--1
111-1
-1---
111V1
-1U11
1U-11
11111-1y
1-1-111-U1UUU11
11-11-1111
1-----1-
-11U1
1-1U11-U
11V11
11-11
-11)U
]^]b]
11V11
^a^]>
--1UU
1-1U11
1Q1Q-
111----,)-
1U1111U1111
]b]^a
11U111
-11--1111
11111-
11U11
1-1-Yb
1-11-
11V11
11-1-
-1-1-11
]^Y^]
9Z]Z]Z
111U11
-11U1
^^]^]
2U1V1
1-1U11-
111V9
---11-
1]2U9
]Z9Z:
^]^]:
11-11
1V11V11
1111-
111-1-
-111-
11V112U
211V1
1U111
U1111V11
11-1-1
111111V1
]Z9Z9
11111
1V11V11U11
91^19
11-11-1
1V11V111
121U:1
]Z]Z:]
11-111-
12U11
111-11
11U1V11
1]121
2U112U1
-111-11
11U11-
-211V1
1U2U1
-1111
11V11V
11U111
1]2U1
11111U11U
-11111-
1-11111-
11111-1-
2112U
1V112U
--1-1
11111
1V111
19U19
112U12U11
11-1-11
51V19U
111111
112U1
-111111-11
111--1-11
11U1U1
1111U11
1-1-11
1-11111-
1U112U1
-1111111-
1U1U11
1111-1-1
1111-1
P1Q111-
1-111
-111-
111V1
111-1
11111U1
111111
1111-11
-1111
1111-11
11111M
-U111
U11111
U1U1U1U
1111U11111
----111
p650-2
ftsTitleOverride
Popular Literature (page 2)
ftsTitle
Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson on a train to Devon to investigate a murder and the disappearance of a famous race horse. The drawing, from an 1892 edition of the Strand Magazine, is by Sidney E. Page, the first artist to draw Holmes and Watson.
Popular Literature (2 of 3)
Horror and ghost stories
Tales of the supernatural abound in folk literature, but it was only with the emergence of the Gothic novel in the second half of the 18th century that the creation of fear and curiosity for its own sake received literary expression. Gothic novels, with their atmospheric landscapes peopled by terrified heroines and sinister monks, are the precursors of the present-day horror story and ghost story.
Tales of vampires - corpses that rise nightly from their graves to drink the blood of the living - are widespread in Eastern European folklore. The modern-day popularity of the vampire story is largely due to the huge success of Dracula (1897), a Gothic-influenced novel by the Irishman Bram Stoker (1847-1912). The figure of Count Dracula, the 'undead' Transylvanian, with deathly pallor, sharp fangs and black cloak, became the model for countless imitators and inspired numerous film versions of the vampire legend. Vampire stories, along with tales of devil-worship and the occult, figure largely in the output of more recent practitioners of horror fiction, notably Dennis Wheatley (1897-1977) in Britain and Stephen King (1946- ) in the USA.
Science fiction
Science fiction (SF) explores the possibilities of alternative futures opened up by the interaction of human choice and scientific advance. The genre has a celebrated 19th-century precursor in Mary Shelley's (1797-1851) Frankenstein (1818), a Gothic-influenced tale of scientific experimentation. But it was towards the end of the 19th century that the SF genre as we recognize it began to emerge in the scientific romances of the Frenchman Jules Verne (1828-1905) and the novels of the Englishman H.G. Wells (1866-1946). Wells's novels in particular introduced themes that were to dominate SF writing for years to come: time travel in The Time Machine (1895), invasion from outer space in The War of the Worlds (1898), and surgical experimentation in The Island of Doctor Moreau (1898).
Rapid developments in the fields of rocketry and computers after World War II are reflected in the work of Arthur C. Clarke (1917- ) in Britain and Isaac Asimov (1920-92) in the USA, who used their considerable scientific knowledge to explore the themes of robotics and interplanetary travel.
In recent years, 'New Wave' SF writers in Britain such as Brian Aldiss (1925- ), J.G. Ballard (1930- ) and Michael Moorcock (1939- ) have invested SF with considerable literary merit. Their fantasies of technological breakdown and catastrophe contrast with the earlier emphasis on the benefits of technology and reflect the anxiety of the century of Auschwitz and Hiroshima.
Concern about the negative aspects of 'progress' has preoccupied a number of writers in the literary mainstream. Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) in Brave New World (1932) and George Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) offered visions of the future in which certain political, social and scientific tendencies of the 20th century reach a nightmare apotheosis.
Fantasy
Fantasy overlaps with SF in dealing with alternative worlds in which unexpected, improbable or supernatural events take place. Early fantasies were written for children, two of the first examples being Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson; 1832-98) and Pinnochio (1883) by the Italian Carlo Collodi (1826-90).
Fantasy writers of the interwar and postwar years, such as J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1973) and his Oxford colleague C.S. Lewis (1898-1963), wrote with a high-minded sense of moral purpose, creating mythological worlds in which the battle between good and evil was clearly enacted. Yet the richly imaginative nature of Tolkien's Lord of the Rings (1954-55) and Lewis's Narnia cycle (1950-56) elevated them to psychedelic cult status for the 'flower power' generation of the 1960s. Tolkien's blend of 'sword and sorcery' subsequently inspired numerous fictional imitators, notably the Americans Ursula Le Guin (1929- ) and Madeline L'Engle (1918- ), as well as spawning role-play fantasy games such as 'Dungeons and Dragons'. The 'Discworld' novels of Terry Pratchett (1948- ), which explore the relationship between technology, culture and mythology, demonstrate the ability of popular fiction to attract different groups of readers and to cross over into other media.
* HOLLYWOOD
* WORLD CINEMA
* THE MODERN NOVEL
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
b b
:^::
::Y:::^
--^1 b
::^^^b
:U2^:-
:U:1:
^U:-1^
:1:U1^:
U:U:^
1V:^^
^:^1:
^^^:1
1:Y::
::Y:::
1:U2:
:^1:-
:1:::
::^1^
:^1:^:
f b b
1^11--
: a b
:--:-
-: 1:
bbU::
]:-:-
^1 ^ b^
::U b
U:2]:
11^::
-:U2-1
:^:-
-Y:1-
::^-1
11-Y:Vb
^::^:^
bf b
^b^^^
^ b f
b b
Z:^Yb-
: b
b bb
^^ ^ b
B b
:^:^:
1:U:11
^::::
U9V:-
f::^^
--:-:
^:^:^
b^:::^
1--1--
11U^11
:Y^Y:^
:^:--
b ^ :
b b1:U1
U1119-
19U111
b f
-11-:
:1^1:Y
^b^ b b
b b b
- 1^:b
f^b^^
b b
:1^1
11:Ub
^-:V:
^1:2^b^:^
_^^^^U
b^^ :^
1-1^1
1-1:-:
:Y:1^
111-1U
11-11
9:U:
:U1
1-11-
111-:1
^1:11-1
1-111
b-:U
1U-11
1:-1-
Y:111
1:1-:-
1-:1 b^
Y-1-11
^b^1^
b b:^^
11111
^ f
--111-
:^b
:1^:^
:^1V1^2U:Yb
--91-
:~: :
U1-:1:1
fb^:^^
11-11
---1-111
1-191^1
111U1-
1b-b-1
1^111U9
:U11-1U1
1---1
-111-
9111]
Y1]1:
:--11-
::U2:1
1-:-1:1^-1U
1^1^1
-1U1-
11--1-
1:U^:
2^1:-
U:--9^^U:
1]:1U
-11111
bU2bb^
U51 -
-1:-:
^1-11
1:U:U
5-119-
-1-1^1^
^:Y::
- :-Y
:1---
2^1:U
b b b
9U911
- 1:U
:1U^U1
11-11
:^b
U1:Ub-b
1^:1:
^111-9-
]1U11
111--
-:-b^
11U1U:
1-1-1
^1U1-
-:Y11
:1V::Y
U:U5^
1U111:
1-1]1--
-111-11
1-1-1U
1]11-11
1U111
:1111
1^1:-
1111-
:U -1-
1U111-
--:1-
U1U11U1
1-11-
11---
^1111
1U11-
111U-
11::^1-:
-2Y:^:
:Ub^
2--1-
::Y::
2U:1-
1:Y::^
1^Y:Y:^:
:U:U9
^1b^1^1
:::Y9
:1:1-
Y:Y:1:U
U:1^Y1
1:1^
:1-1-
^::^:
::--:
1:1:Ub
U b b
b^b^1:
:V:Y
1-:-Y
2--:-
6:]b
:U:U1
:YbY:U1^Y:
b f
:Y:^
-1111
Y:Y^:
:::Y:
^b Y1
^1^:b1
:1:b
Y:2^Y
:Y6:6
2^Y:Y^
::Y:1
^1::-
^1^Y:
2:-^:
9U>-1^
1U1-Y
b ^b^
21U:U
1-1:U
::U::U:
11U:--
::V111
1-1-19
19--119-
19-1111
::1^:^:
2^::Y:
:V9-U
1^^^b
U19^92
-:^: -
:-1^b
-:-1-
111-1
1--11
1-1Y-
1:U:
2U^^
U11U1
:^::1
:^^9
:-211U:1
:1^b^^:^
-:-:-
:Y:^^^
1]16^
2U:-:
:11^-
UU:-:^
1 ^b^11:
^Y11:
^:Ub^:
p650-3
ftsTitleOverride
Popular Literature (page 3)
ftsTitle
Harold Robbins' books contain the vital ingredients of a bestseller: glamour, sex and power. Since the early 1980s there has been a proliferation of commercial novels that include not only glamour, sex and power but also shopping. These 'Sex and Shopping' novels provide the reader, often women, with a detailed escapist fantasy, down to the jewelry the characters wear.
` M Popular Literature (3 of 3)
Romance
In contemporary romantic fiction the classic roots of the genre are clearly visible. The plot of Charlotte Bront's Jane Eyre (1847) displays a pattern - that of the dutiful female finally winning the love of a powerful and rich male archetype - which is now the hallmark of popular romantic fiction.
Indeed, today the term 'romantic fiction' denotes a genre read almost exclusively by women. Its plots center round the fulfillment achieved through true love. Invariably this love is thwarted as part of the plot, but having proved herself worthy the heroine generally wins her man. Perhaps more than any other branch of popular fiction, romance relies on formulaic plots and characters, and also uses stock description and phrases. These features mean that experienced writers of romance employed by specialist romance publishers such as Mills and Boon may write their novels very rapidly indeed.
In deference to their 19th-century precursors, romances are frequently given historical settings. Writers such as Catherine Cookson (1906- ), Georgette Heyer (1902-74) and Victoria Holt (1906- ) all use the past to provide the picturesque backgrounds, elegant lifestyles and virile men which they imply are no longer readily available.
Bestsellers
The term bestseller is used in a narrower sense to denote a type of highly-planned commercial novel aimed principally at achieving short-term profit. Sales of the novels of the US writer Harold Robbins (1912- ), for example, currently exceed 100 million copies. For the most part these novels are set in the fast-paced world of big business and revolve around such subjects as the Mafia, financial corruption and emotional power struggles to which are added the key ingredients of sex, violence and marital infidelity.
In other media, these themes have formed the subjects of TV 'soap operas' such as Dallas and Dynasty. Indeed, American 'soaps' are credited with giving birth to a new form of bestseller - the 'Sex and Shopping' (S & S) novel which combines serial sexual encounters with regular mention of brand-name fashion items to give a characteristically 'yuppie' background against which the plot is essentially incidental. The first hugely successful S & S novel was Shirley Conran's (1932- ) Lace (1982), followed closely by the novels of Jackie Collins and others.
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher. In his Poetics, one of the most influential works of aesthetic theory ever written, Aristotle analyzed tragedy and praised poetry for its ability to tell universal truths, like philosophy, rather than particular facts, like history. The Poetics introduced concepts relating to the theory of tragedy that are still widely discussed today. (Vienna Classical Art Collection/Austrian Embassy, London)
Literary Theory and Literary Criticism (1 of 3)
Interest in literature has produced theories about it since Aristotle first analyzed tragedy around 340 BC. Until recent times, literature was generally assumed to be, like other forms of art, an imitation of life. Detailed discussion focused on the best means of making this imitation effective: on the appropriate form for a particular subject, on the right structure for a poem or play, and on correct stylistic usage.
With the rediscovery of Greco-Roman literature during the Renaissance, the 'classics' provided models of good writing, and even rules for tragedy, which French Neoclassical dramatists followed. The best statement of Neoclassical principles was given by Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711), and echoed by Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, the first great critic in England.
Assumptions changed with the coming of Romanticism. Genius was held to be superior to any rules, and literature was thought to do something more profound and mysterious than merely imitate. Especially in Germany, philosophers paid great attention to the essentially creative character of the mind, to the central role of the imagination, and to the special kind of significance embodied in art. These philosophical ideas were introduced into Britain by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who argued that poetry does not simply state commonly accepted truths in ornate fashion, but creates a new form of truth, using essentially symbolic images to combine diverse aspects of reality into a unique whole. With this insight modern literary criticism was born. Its task was no longer to judge correctness or even excellence by an agreed standard, but to show the rich diversity of meaning within a literary work, and how it coheres.
French biographical and historical criticism
France again led the way in criticism during the 19th century, but in an anti-Romantic direction. Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1804-69) developed his own explanation of the unity and meaning of literary works by relating them to the life and personality of their author. Hippolyte Taine (1828-93) investigated the determining influence of environment and race. Ferdinand Brunetiere (1849-1906) worked out the evolution of literary genres.
By the early 20th century, France possessed a huge body of such scholarly criticism. French literature, systematized into periods, schools, styles, and backgrounds, was more rigorously studied than any other in Europe. (The first professor of English at Cambridge University, Arthur Quiller-Couch, was not appointed until 1912.) Before the development of a 'new criticism' in France in the 1960s, only a few creative writers, such as Proust, dared suggest that such academic scholarship was irrelevant to an understanding of the creative process.
A more philosophical style of criticism persisted in Germany, dominated by the idea of a 'spirit of the age' (Zeitgeist), that can be seen in similarities in the style and outlook of literary works produced in the same period. Literature was treated as prime evidence in the spiritual history of Europe.
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
tpTtLP(t
xPLP$,
PpPt,L
tTttL,L
pPpPt,LPL
,tPLPp
pPpt(PP
tPH,$$,
$,L$,L
xPH,tPp
PP$,P$
PtL,P(,
P$P(,
LtpPP(
,,L,H,$
tPt$,t(PH
Lttp,pP
tLtPpP
tt,$P
lPt(PPp
t(t(t,
pHPLP
Pp,PLP(P
PtP($,
$,$,(
tLtt,tP
L,LPTL
tPLPp
$,(P$(
ptPtL
$,(P(
LPt$PL,P
t(tLPLt
px,p,
tLt(t
,(,LP,LP
(tPtpTP
p,L,t,
TtLtLt,LPP
$Lx,P
L,xPLPt,
LP,pPL
(t(t,xtt,p
TPTPLP,P($
tLttL,$
PLPPtLPPpP
,tpPt,
TPtLt$
,(PTtP
xPxtp
,P(,PPxPL
TtxPtp
tx,PxtTtLP
tLxPt
Ttt(t
PpxtTtxP
Ttxxt,t(t
PtpPx
P,LtT
xP,(tPp
tp,pTP
TxxPLt,
L,L,P
,p,t,t
x,PLPP
PtTxPx,L,p
PxPtTtp,t(
,tLxPPLtPp
(PL,xPP(P
,pPxTxtPPL
P(,$P,
tPxPxPtpTt
(t(,(
t,tpP
(tpx,x
txtP$
TtPpP$Pp
(PLP,tP
x,pPx,
$TPxtPp$
,xtLtt
Tx,t,(tP
PLtxxPp
,p,x,L
t(PPx
$,(P,$
(PPxP
tP(P($
$,p,tt(xt(
tTx,PP
tLt,t
$,PLx,
xPL,L
tPLTP
Pp,(PLP($,
tTtt$$P
,ptLP
ptLttLP
,$,tLPPL
tTtt(
$LP,p,
t(PPtxPL,P
$Tt(t,L
,P(t,L,
tLPPxP
pPTP$
,p,LUt,xPP
ttPp,$
P(t,,L,pPt
(t,p,
LPpTtL
(tPxt
xPHPp
P(tLPT
$,tp,PL$
xt(xt(P
pPtxtPTP
H,Lt(P,
LPP,t
LTtLPP
pPPLP($,p$
xLP,p
LP(P,L,LP
$TtTt$,L
,LPP(t
Ltx,H
t(,PLP(t,$
tPL,t
Lt(tPpt(PP
L,$,$tTtLP
tPLPL,P
P$P(t
P(PPp,
LPPLPp,,LP
pTttLPP$
Pp$tP
PxTP(P
Pt(t$
PxP,p,P$P(
tpPt,(
,t(,t
txxPp
P,(tPLP
PLPPttTt
P$tLxPtPLP
p,P(P,L,
,pPpx
xtPp,t
Pt(PP
PLt$P
L,PLPxPxPt
TxPpt,
xtLPPp
LPPptt
tLttPx
Ttpt(
tLxPtL
PtLPP
tLtPp,t,$P
Txxt,t
,QLtxP
tpPLP
TtPpTx
$tpPxT
TtLttLxt
PptLt
TtLtP
tp,x,
,PLt(xP
PpPPt(t
LxPtLPt
Ptp,tpP
,tLP$
PLtPtpP
tPpPPp
tLtpPtLt
t,pt,
PPLP$Px
HPLP,(H,t
tPptLt$
xHPLtt
tLx,$P
,pPH,
tPptTt
PLPP(
Lttp,HP
PptLtt
Pp$PLPT
tpPtpP
tLP$P$
,tLtPpP
ptLtptp
Pp,tTx
PtLPP
pttPptPtLt
PtLtP
$,pPt
xt(tp
PPH,t
tpPtPt
P,LPtP
xPpPtptp
PpxPt
,LPpt
tTtLxP$
Lt,L,tPp
Ptp,P(
PptpP
xtPptL
tPpTt
t(tPx
TtPpP
$$,LPP
PpPtpPtp,
tLttP
PtPLtPp
P($,$,pP
Ttp,p
PtpPp
PHPpP
pPpPt
,tt(t
tptPpt
pPx,LPt
xTtpPP
TtpPp
lPLtL
,pt(x
Pp,P(
(PTtLP
Pt(tt
PLt,t
PxtPPLt(,$
tPptP
tpP,t
pTttPtp
PxtPtpTtp
tLt(P
PpPt(ttLx
pxPtp,tL
xtp,t
pPtLt
PHPL,tTtLt
PptPptPx
PpPtLx
xt,pPt
tLtPptL
PtpxxPp
xpPpxP
xPptP
TtPpTtP
PptPt
TtPpP
PLt,p
t,ptPptPpP
tLPpPxx
PpH,t
TPPptPp
t,(t,pPP
xt,LPtp
PpP(PLtt
Pptp,L,
,pt,(
tLttPLtPL,
tpTtT
tt$,p
,,pPt
(t(tpP
,tLtLtPLtP
pPttpPtT
tPptLP
tLtLPp
PLPp,PLt
$Pp,tLPL
$PptPp,
LPpPt
PLPL,PL,
PLP$,p,ptt
HPptt(tt
tPxPt
PxPpP
,L,P$,L,L
,H,LH$,P,(
Ptp,L$
(P$,$
$,$,L,H(t
(PPpT
tLHPL
,$H,,(P$$,
$,PLt
PPp,pP
tLt,L$,
PpPLH,L,$
(tTtT
tPp,$P
$,$,$
,$PPp
p,,P($
TtPtLt
$,p,x
PptPptPptt
tPpPtL
$,$,$,
($$Pp
xPpttL
Px,$P
P(P(t
L,ptP
p,PpPLtt
Ptp,tt
LtPt($,$
(P$,t(t,$
,,L$$,
L,$,$P
tPpPHPt(tT
(PPL,$,
(P(t,p,,L
p,t,PLtp
PxtPp
tt,($
($,P,p,P(t
,(PPt
PtPPLPp,t,
,tPpPx
PpPpt,L$
,$P(tLPPp,
PL$,$
TtpPL,p
,tLtLtP
,L,P$t
tPL,$,L$
$,L,tp,t(P
Pp,P,tLtLP
tLt$,L
PLPt($
L,tPLPpTt,
t($P(
PLPtL
,tPtLPtpPt
,t(tp$
pPt(P,L
,L,pPtxt(t
(P,$,$,P($
xPtL,P
,t(tLt,pPp
tTtTt,(tP
t(t($,$,
PLPtLt(t,t
(,L,L,L,LP
tpPtLt(
tLPPpPttPp
PLPPH,
L,tLt,t
tPpPt(
Lt,pPpP
P($,,(t(tL
PTt,p1$,(t
tptPPL
tLtPpt(ttT
tPpP$P
$P(P$,tPLP
,p,t(tP(tP
tTtLPLt
PL,PPtLtPt
TttLt
t(ttxPpt
PpP,L$,L,
L,$,,L,LPP
p,tLP
Ptpt,xP
pPtLPLttpT
ttLttTttLt
,L,pP
,pPt(P,p
tPt(PL
ttLtPtLxtL
PPLH,L,
$,L,H,,p,
tLPPLP,LxP
PptLtp
TtpPP,PLtT
tpttTttTtx
tLPPt(
xP(t,
$,$,P(HPLP
L,t(Pt(t(t
tTtLtPptpP
,PpPt
p,tL,pPp
pt,L,P
P(t,t(
P,P(t,tpPp
PpTttLtt
xPLPp,Pp,t
pPptLtxP
xPtLPPL
P(t(t(P(P
Lt(t(tp,xP
tPpt,PtLtP
LPtxPtLttx
t(tLttLtPp
xtLttL
tLtP(P
PPpPP
,L,,HPtTtt
LxtPpP(tPL
,pPtptLtP
tPtpx
PtpPtLt,p
LtPPLtT
tLt,LtP
,(tp,t(PPH
Lt,pP,ptT
tLPxtP
ptLt,pPP(
tLtPtpTtpT
xPpt,
tptPLPPtLP
(,(PHPp,tP
L,P,p,PpPt
t(PPLt,pt,
p,tpTt
tpPtLt
,pt(tLtP
PtLPPHt
H,PL,p,LPL
PL,tLPtp,
xTtLttTt
tp,t(PPpPt
p,pPx,tp
tTxPptt
pPtPp,P(H
tt(P$
tPtLP
L,tLPtPL,P
,(tPLPtpPx
pPtLt(t,tp
PtPtpP
PpPpP
(ttLt,t
L,tL,
PptpP
Pp$,L,LPt(
H,t(PPLPP
PxtPtLP
PtLP,tpPLP
tptLtxPp
tpPtpPPLt(
P(tP$
t(tPLPPpPt
(PLPLtPL
Pp1,tPpPtL
Ptp,pPH,HP
xPtp,t
Lt,LPPLtPP
(P,p,x,
tpTtLtt
p,tp,L,pTP
PL,t(
tPtp,,
tLPPpt,p,L
,p,PLtPpxP
ttLtP
pPPp,tPtpt
ttpHPp
tpPL$,HPp
Lttp,PLP
Pp,tt
L,Pp,
Lt,t(PLtLt
Pp,ptP
tPpPp
LPtLPLHpPP
pPPpP
tLtpTtLtLP
p,ttLPp
tt,pt(tLP
PpPt,PLtP
xPxxt
Pp,tpPpPH
Lt,t(tLPPL
TtTtp
PpPtLPLttp
t(P,$,(
pPPHPL
(t(tPL,
PtLtLtPpPt
PLPLPLPPtt
(t,LPPLx
TttLtt,tpP
t(t(t
tLtt(
LtPptpPtLt
,p,$t,$
,LP$tLtt(
t(tPxt
PptPpTt
txPLPPptPp
tPptL
H,$,(P
t(t$PPp
PtLtPpt
PpPtLtPpt
H,H,$
tLtPL
p,t(PPLP
tPptt(tPpt
LPPL,p,pPP
pt,ptPpT
tLtPPLtt(t
PpPL,
PPLtPLtLt
(tPpPt
LtH,,$t,$
xPtL,t(t,
Pp,Ptptx
Pt,pPtpPt
pPpPHPLPPL
PpPptLttpP
P,LPtt
(t,pPtLx
ttPp,
tLtPp
pPtLt(tLt,
xPpPPLt,
PpPPLP(tP
,pttP
PxtLtPL
PHPpttL
PpttLttpPt
tPp,tLt,pt
,pPtp
TtxPtL
xPtLPPp
PtLttL
Pp,pHPLt
tPpPpxPtp
xPpPpPtp
tPLt,pttLt
tPtLP,pPLt
tPptL
PpPtp
PPpPtLtL
tLP(PtpttP
PtpPtLttLt
LtpPtTt
tpt,ptPtpP
PpPpPt
lPPLttLt
PtLtLPpPtL
p,tpPHtptL
tPLPt
xtpPpPtLP
LttLPPtpP
tptPp
PptPp,tpP
PtpPp
PtLtPptp
ttLtpPp,
tH,p$,
PtpPtpPtp
PtLttLttLt
Lt,HPptL
Ltt,pPtptP
tpPpl
tpPtpPtLtp
txPpt
ttpPptPx
tpPpPpP
pPpttLtPpt
LttpP
(tPptPpttL
LtPHP
pPttLt
pPptPptPLP
tPpPt
pPtLtptPpP
LtPtLt
PpPt(tPpPt
tTttL
tptPptLtt
PttPptL
tPtpT
tLttPpPt
HPpPpHPptP
ptpPtpt
,tPptPPL
LttLttpPpP
PtpPt
tHtLtt
tLtTtt
pPLtLP,p,L
ptt(ttLtpP
tpPtptPp,t
PL,t($P(
tpPpPltpP
ttL,t
tLttLtLttp
PtLPLPP
PptLt
PLt,ptP
ttLttL
tLtPtLt
PxPpxPtLtp
PpPtptPtLt
(tPptLtPpP
TtPpP$$P
PpPtHPptPp
PPLtp,t(PP
pPpttLtTtp
PptPpPxPtL
LPL$tLttLt
TxPxP
ptPpPp,t(P
L,t(tPLPpP
PpPtpPtptP
pPtptPpP
LtplP
PptPLt,t
PLP$Pt(PPL
PttPpPPpPt
LtPptPPtp,
PpPPLP
pPtptpHtLt
PtLtPp
Pp,ptP
ptPpt(PPLP
(PtLt,pPLP
tpPtpt,pPt
LtLtlt(
ttLP$,
pPtpP
t$PLPLtPpP
,t(tPL,P
(,PLt(tPLP
PptpPtL
t,ptPpt
LtLtP$
pPtHPPL,tH
tLPtpt
PtpPt
,t,p,t(t(t
tLPPtPpt
PLPtPp
$PLP(
pPtt(t
HHPtpPp
PpPTt
LPpPp,P
,LPttLPptP
LPPptPpxPp
t(ttL
PptLt
Pp,t(
(t(tLtPpPt
PtLtLttpP
PptPPH
,(Ht,ptLtt
LPPtl
PpPt(
Pt(tPptt
LPtLt
$,p,p$
PptLt
tLttLt
t(tHUPH,(P
t(ttLPPpPt
LttpPtp
LttLt
PpHHtL
LtPpt
,t(Q,,pHPp
,p,ttpPt
PpPtpPttLt
Pp,,H
tPpPtLtL
xPtLPPL
$(P,LPtPpP
LPtp,PpPtp
PptLtt
t,L,P,pPLt
(tpPtpP
PtpPp
PtLtPpt
Px,tL,,($,
$(P,lPtpPt
LttLP
ttpPtt
PpP,p$,L
$P,(t,pP
tPpPtLP
PpPtL
(,$,(P
,pPLPtPpPt
PtLPLtPtp
$,pP$
PpPP($,P(,
$PLttPpPpt
Pttpt
PtPtp
p$,LPt(PLt
Ppt,pt
LtLtP
PPpt$
P$,LtPtpPt
LtHPtLtPHx
PtH,$,pPx,
PpPPL
PLt,(PLPtL
tpPpPLPtpP
pPHPL
P($,ptPPpt
tPpt,pP
tpTPPLPH,
t(t(tLtPpt
pPpPPpPtpP
Pp,pP
PtPpPp
t(P,L,L,
Pp,ptPtLt
PLxPx
ttLtP
pPH,p,t(tL
tPp,l
pTtLtPL,P
PH,t(t(tPt
tPLPt
ptLt(ttp,
tPpHttp
p,tLt
PtPp,t(Ppt
,ptLtTl
,pPtt(
(t,tp
tPtpPpt,L
PH,PpPPtpt
tptLt
tLt(Pp
tPLt,LtLPL
PptPLP
LtpPpPp
PxPpP
tPxtLtLtLP
P(tLtPpt
,tTtxtL
t(tPLt,
PHPLPpPp,
tPtpPp
tPLtp,PLtP
tHLP$P
PpPtpttPt
LP,ptP
$,,LPPtLt
Pt(Pp
Ht,,t
TtPpt
pPptPptLtp
t(t,$p
tPxPtpP
ptPptPtP
(tPpPt
TtLtLtptpP
ttPpPPp
tPtPpPpttp
LH,L,
LtLttpP
tPp,ptpPtL
xPtx,
tLtPpt
tPtptP
t(H,LHPp
PH,pT
PLPt,tL
PLtPp
H,Lt,HPLPt
pPptPtLt
t,pP(,t
LtptPpt
LtpPtp
,ptpP
tpPtPptp
(tL,xP
PtLttLtt
,HPptP
ptLtLtP
PtLt,
p,L,t
LttLtpPx
p,H,tLtt
LtxPP(tP
tLtP$,p
,(t(x
tPptpPt
LtPpx
PP(tt
pPtLPtp
,HttTx
PpPtTtp,
tpPtpP
p$,PpP
PHPtx
Pp$,L,L
t(H,ptt
PptpPt
ptPpPtp,
ptPLPtp
pPt(P(
PtLPp
PtTtPL$
PtLtt
tPpt,pP
(PPHPp
tPL$,LPtp
PPptLtPp
PtpH,pPL
LtLtt
(tPp,P(
$Pt(t
tpPtL
(HtLt
H,tpP
pPtLPt(
tPpPtpPpT
Pp,tp
Pt($PPpPtp
PL$PL,,
ptpPtp,
tPpPt(,$,L
t,pPpPpP
PpPtL
t$PHPptpPt
Pp,LP
,p,tL
pPtpPxPptP
Ptpt,$P
PPLHt(tLtP
HPLtpPpP
tpPtLP
(tPLPptLtP
TtpPP$
PttLx
tPpPtH,tL
$(PP$
Lt,LtHtPp
LttpP
Pp$P(HP
ttLP,$
LtLtP
PPLPp,pPtL
TPpPP,
LtpPPpPx
TtPxPtHP
PpPtptPpt
Pt($,L,LtP
pPtL,t
P,pPt(
tPLP$
,HP,pPtP
tLtPpPtL
TtP(PL
pPPLt
P(ttpPtp
L$,ptPp
pPptH
PP(,P$t
PpPtLttpPt
Lt,LH,
,LPPx
tPL,t
$,$,L,
PPpPtp
,p,$$,L,pP
ttLt,p
Pt$t,LP
t(tPpttLt
L,PpPP$
tLtLPxt(tP
L,PL$tL
tpPtL
Ptpt$tp
t,p,$$P($t
,PLtPtLttT
PPL,P
pTt,$
L,L,P
PtLP(
pt,$P
PtpPH
,$,$tPx
,$,tx
t(tt%
tLtPpt,
Lt($Pt
p,pPtt
tLltLP
$PLPPLtPp
$,LPxPx
Pt(PPpTtp
LtP$,H,pPt
,($tL
p,tpP
PptPp
LPLPTtL
,HPL&
HtLtt
ttPpPP$Pp
Ptt$tt
PpPpP$P
$,$tp
P,L$$tL
PxtLtP
HPtPpPP
PL$PHLt
LPt(t,t
l,$,PPp
$,tLtPL
P(tLt
tPpt$$
LtPL,P(t
($PpPP
PpPp,
,,pPPLPP
tPL$t
$,LPL
pPpTt
LtpP,
$PLtP$Px
,$PL,p
L,pPP
tpt,$Px
Ht(tTt
$,pt(P
P$,PL
$,tTt
,$,PPp
LPPLt
,PPpt
tLPtTt
xtpP$
(,tLt
(PPLPtT
Pp,$,1
,tPL,
$,t(t
tLtx,xT
t(txPpTt
P(PtLtx
PPptL
P,L,tLtP
p,PLt
PLPPt
(PPtLP
PLPpP,T,p/
,LPLt
pTPt,xP
$PpPtp
Ppx,P,x4
Pt(PTPL
$PpTt
(PLP,
(,PLPT
(tTt(t
Ptp,p
$,$(t,LP
L,Pxt
tLtP$
PL$PH,LtPt
,L,$P,$,L
(,t0P
LPL,$
PLPtP
LtLTt
t(,P(t
PpPtP
P($,p,
$P($Ppx
L,$P$,
L,tLxtTt
(P,xP
$P(tP
PtPpt
tpPtL
$,(tPx
($t,pPx
PtLP,
$tTt,L
P(PLt
P$,$P
PpTPPHP
PxxPxPL
($(tP
Pt(PH,
P,xPLPxx
x,L,xT
UttLx
H,pPpP(T
PL,tLPtT
PtxPPTt,
,P,tP
,LPt(
,P(P$
PtptPp
t,LPx
PxPPxT
TtxHT
PxPLPPLt
,Pp,(
$PL,t
,LPtpP
TtP(txx
tTt(PP
Ttp,,pt,
x$,L,
Pp,,p
,(H,t
PL$,(tP
PtxP$,t
PL,LU
PPLxT
t,,tLP,p$,
tPyPp$
,txPt
PtLTP
P(txT
x,xtT
$0P(PL
LtPt(
tTx,$,(tp
PtLPu
PTxt,P
(tt(t(
,xPtxP
,pPtTxPtTx
PxPxT
px,L,L,xPx
TtpPPpt,PC
P(PPL
pPtTt
xPtPP
LPTtPpt
xPp,tpP
p652-2
ftsTitleOverride
Literary Theory and Literary Criticism (page 2)
ftsTitle
Matthew Arnold caricatured in 1871. A poet of some distinction, Arnold wrote little verse after the age of 40, turning to essays on literary, cultural and educational themes, and establishing himself as the leading English critic of his age. In works such as Culture and Anarchy (1869), Arnold called for greater emphasis on literary and cultural values to counterbalance what he saw as the philistinism and materialism of British life and culture.
F.R. Leavis in a pen-and-ink drawing by Jeffrey Morgan. Leavis, whose critical method was characterized by close and detailed reading of literary texts, saw the study of literature as a civilizing activity in an age of cultural decline. He was one of the first to champion the poetry of T.S. Eliot and the novels of D.H. Lawrence.
Literary Theory and Literary Criticism (2 of 3)
Modern textual criticism
Matthew Arnold (1822-88) deplored the lack of informed knowledge of literature in Britain, by contrast with France and Germany. He preached the need for literary culture to replace declining religion and save society from anarchy. A similar concern with the civilizing function of poetry is shown by the Cambridge critic I.A. Richards (1893-1979), whose influential method of 'practical criticism' stressed the importance of close textual study, and trained and tested readers' responses. With F.R. Leavis (1895-1978) - also a Cambridge don - this approach became a crusade to defend the moral, social, and life-enhancing lessons of literature against mere academic know- ledge and theory, and also against the threat posed by the media and advertising. His periodical, Scrutiny, was contributed and subscribed to by those anxious to maintain standards of literary sensibility in mass industrial society. The poet and critic William Empson (1906-84), brought to the Cambridge method of textual analysis an insight into the multiple meanings of words (ambiguity) and the symbolic language of poetry, which recalls Coleridge.
This group of critics was influenced by the criticism of T.S Eliot, the first to go beyond Coleridge in defining how poetic symbols unify diverse thoughts and feelings. Eliot argued that thought and feeling had become 'dissociated' when the tradition which preserved such unifying symbolism broke down in the face of 17th-century science. The task of modern writers was to restore it; a tradition of poetic language and forms was the necessary complement of individual talent.
Eliot's ideas, together with the method of closely scrutinizing the texts to discover their pattern of unity and layers of meaning, were developed by a brilliant generation of so-called New Critics in the USA. Critics such as John Crowe Ransom (1888-1974) and Cleanth Brooks (1906- ) rejected consideration of the writer's intentions and motives - 'the intentional fallacy' - in favor of analysis of the text in its own terms. Their insistence that a work of literary art achieves a unique significance, setting it apart from other kinds of thought, truth, or utterance, resulted in accusations of elitist aestheticism, and of cultivating personal sensitivity at the expense of social responsibility.
This charge was raised most fiercely by Marxist critics, for whom the significance of literature lies always in its reflection of historical and social reality. The most distinguished Marxist critic of this period was the Hungarian Georg Lukacs (1885-1971), who generally condemned Modernist literature by comparison with the Realist tradition of the 19th-century novelists.
From linguistics to structuralism
The growth of Modernism in literature was partly responsible for the tendency amongst modern critics to regard a literary text as a complex structure of words, rather than as a representation of the real world. This tendency was reinforced by other influences, most notably that of modern linguistics, which began with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. The implications of linguistics for all types of writing were discovered by a post-World War II generation of French intellectuals, who were further influenced by the ideas of the pyschoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and the anthropologist, Claude Luvi-Strauss (1908- ); both men pointed to the presence of deep symbolic systems of meaning within the mind, below the level of rational awareness.
In addition, the ideas were revived of a group of Russian critics interested in linguistics and known as Formalists (notably Viktor Shklovski; 1893- ). They had analyzed the techniques writers use to give words a special artistic meaning different from the realistic one intended in practical speech. Banned in Russia, this work had continued in Prague, and became widely known through Roman Jakobson (1896-1982). He established the basic ways in which words can be linked together, for example by analogy (as in poetic metaphors) or by association (as in narrative description). The difference in meaning that results is due not to natural differences in the word, but to different kinds of linguistic structure.
The method of criticism known as structuralism has its roots in the linguistics of Saussure and Jakobson. It regards the literary text as a system of signs, and seeks out the underlying conventions or rules that cause these signs to generate meaning. Such criticism offers no traditional commentary on literary works in a social, psychological, moral or historical sense; it analyses their imaginative grammar - the interrelationship of their constituent parts.
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
bVb^
^:2 :
-f1-:-
2^1-
:^::^:
1::^ 1
:^:V:^:
^:^:^:V:V
:^:^:
:^:^:
p652-3
Roland Barthes (1915-1980) was one of the most original structuralist critics. In his analysis of a story by Balzac, he illustrates by means of musical notation the presence of a six-level meaning in the text. He divides the text up into a numbered sequence of sense units (groups of phrases and sentences that he calls lexias), and likens them to bars in music. The six levels of meaning are like sounds from different instruments playing together when the story is read. Barthes analyses exactly what meanings are sounded, from the most obvious story line (in the 'semes') down to the deep suggestions of enigma, at the very moment of Balzac's narrative.
Literary Theory and Literary Criticism (3 of 3)
The post-structuralist conclusion
Structuralism soon went beyond the neutral description of linguistic and literary structures. Critics began to consider the implications of the idea that meaning is only a matter of convention. Having learnt to dismiss the intentions of the author, and any reference to external reality, was a reader not free to find all manner of meanings in a literary work - or none? If writing is a form of play with words, should criticism itself not play with it, rather than try to fix it in a final analysis? And if a text pretends to achieve truth or realism, is it not criticism's job to expose this deception by 'deconstructing' its false facade? Such deconstruction became the catch phrase of criticism designed to reveal the essential incoherence and inconsistency of any text that does not confess its own arbitrary play with meaning. The philosophical and cultural implications have been explored by Michel Foucault(1926-84) and Jacques Derrida (1930- ) in France, while more or less 'deconstructive' criticism has also been practiced in the USA. Deconstruction is often hard to understand, partly because it seems to ignore or demolish a text's conventionally obvious meaning, which it regards as some sort of political or psychological fabrication.
Many other and older types of literary criticism have continued to flourish. None is satisfied by merely personal impressions or judgments (as are often found in book reviews in newspapers). Conflicting moral, political, and philosophical assumptions have turned criticism into a battleground of values, concerning questions of spiritual openness or narrowness, social constraint or freedom, and sexual difference and prejudice (where specifically feminist criticism has had much to say).
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
* THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
* SYMBOLISM, AESTHETICISM AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Literary Theory and Literary Criticism (page 3)
ftsTitle
W]3W]3W^3
W9WW3W
p654-1
ftsTitleOverride
Journalism (page 1)
ftsTitle
The power of the image. Photographs and television reports from the Vietnam war had a strong influence as pressure mounted to end the fighting. This picture of Vietnamese children fleeing aerial napalm attacks in 1972 helped force the Americans to withdraw from the war.
Journalism (1 of 2)
Journalism is the gathering and redistribution of news either to a specific category of people or to as many people as possible, internationally, nationally or locally. The term journalism was originally applied to recording news by means of the printed word, usually in newspapers but also in magazines. Journalism now includes transmitting news electronically as, for example, by radio or television.
Before information could be written, or electronically passed through airwaves, poets and bards would memorize, embroider and sing or speak the news to the rich or powerful, who could afford or command their services. Access to information increased as more people became able to read and write. Journalism is often said to have begun with Acta Diurna, a daily news-sheet recording social and political news, published in ancient Rome from 59 BC. News-sheets circulated in German cities in the 15th century, but regularly published newspapers did not appear until the 17th century. Nieuwe Tydingen, published in Antwerp from 1605, was one of the earliest, although the oldest existing newspaper is the Swedish official journal Post och Inrikes Tidningar, founded in 1645.
Magazines developed from the learned journals that first appeared in the 17th century. Early examples contained comment and opinions on current events, but by the early 19th century mass-circulation illustrated magazines had appeared, including periodicals for specific interest groups.
The Fourth Estate
The power of the press to inform and to shape opinions was soon recognized. Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), the Scottish essayist and historian, described the press as 'the Fourth Estate, more important than the three traditional powerful estates of the Monarch, the Lords and the Commons'. At the end of the 19th century the scope of journalism was enlarged as the new popular press added entertainment to the more traditional functions of information and interpretation. Lord Northcliffe (1865-1922), who did much to develop the modern popular press in Britain, identified a new reading public who wanted to read brief, rather than in-depth, news reports in papers that also offered them stories and amusing features. Differences between the style and presentation of the easily accessible 'popular press' - aimed at a mass circulation - and the more informative 'quality press' date from the beginning of the 20th century when Northcliffe owned The Times, launched the Daily Mail and bought a stake in the Daily Mirror.
The right to know
From the 15th century, when printing increased the number of people who could obtain and read in formation and opinions, censors of the printed word became active. Throughout Europe there were strict controls on printers. In Britain, no book, pamphlet or news-sheet could be printed without a Royal license until after the Civil War in the middle of the 17th century. Censorship in modern Western countries depends upon varying degrees of taste, restraint and self-censorship as well as upon how strict a state's laws of libel are. For example, the laws affecting the privacy of the individual are relatively strong in France. For this reason, 'revelations' regarding the private lives of French public figures are not possible in the popular press in France, but this is not generally thought of as a restriction on the freedom of information. In Western countries proprietors occasionally censor their journals or apply pressure for the inclusion of opinions and information sympathetic to their business or personal concerns. Advertisers can also exert influence. No newspaper would wish to upset advertisers and lose valuable revenue.
Governments exercise differing, often con fusing, controls to protect official secrets. Sometimes official secrecy may be used to conceal mistakes or to suppress potentially embarrassing details. In the USA, the freedom of the press is guaranteed by the First Amendment of the Constitution (1787). In Britain the Official Secrets Act (1911, amended 1989) may be used to prevent the publication of in formation regarded as likely to endanger national security.
In dictatorships and Communist countries, the party in power is the censor. Opinions contrary to the official line are not usually printed and 'inconvenient' facts are suppressed. In the late 1980s, under the policy of glasnost (greater openness) in the USSR, articles criticizing officials and public bodies, but not the Communist system, began to be published. This editorial change was accompanied by a dramatic decline in the circulation of the staid daily newspapers, and a corresponding increase in readership of the innovative weekly paper Argumenty I Fakty.
The independence of TV and radio journalists depends on how the system is funded. In some countries, radio and TV may be wholly or partly financed by the state, with varying degrees of control. In Britain, the state-funded British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) enjoys much freedom and runs regional radio stations and two TV networks, mainly financed by license fees paid by the viewing public. It competes with commercial TV and radio networks funded by advertising revenue.
* PRINTING
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1-11-
-1U-1U
--111
-111--U
Y-111-1
-1U11-
-1111U
-1-1U
11-11U
--1-1-1
-11-1-1-
111-1
-Y1U^Y
-1--1-
U111-1U1
1-1-1
1U1-1
-1U111
1-1111U
1U1-1
--1-1
-11-1
-1U11
1U1-1
1U1111
11U-1
1U1111
1U11-
-1-1U-
-111-
1-111-1
U1-1-
111U1
Y-111
1U111
11111
1111U11
11-11Y11
1111-
-Y11-1
--1-1
1--11-1-
-11-1-
1--11-1
-1--1
11111
1--111
1-1^1
1U1-1
1111111
111U1
111U1
-1-1-
1U11-
U1-1U
1-1111
11-1--
111--
-11U1
11U11-11
111U^
1U11-1
-111U
1-111U
1-111U
11111
--1111
11--11
1U11U
111-1U
11--1U
1---1
--11111
-1111
111-1
--11U
111-1-1-
11U11
111111
1-1111
--11---
-1-11-
11-1U
1--1-
-11-11U
1-11U
-111-11-11
1-1-1
-1U111
111-1U^
1U^11
-1111
-U1-1U
-1-11
11-11
-1-111
111U1
U11-1-U
1111-
111--
1-111-
111-11
-1-Y-
1U1U1
U1111
-1-1-
--1U11
U1-Y1
p654-2
ftsTitleOverride
Journalism (page 2)
ftsTitle
News may be colored by views. The British popular daily newspaper The Sun left its readers in no doubt about its editorial opinion concerning the sinking of the Argentinian cruiser General Belgrano during the 1982 Falklands War.
Journalism (2 of 2)
The scope of journalism
The Pulitzer prizes - awarded annually for achievement in American journalism - illustrate the scope of newspaper journalism. Awards are made for the best reporting of national news and of international news, the most distinguished editorial, and the best local reporting (both with and without a deadline). There is also a Pulitzer award for the best news photograph, a reminder that news may be presented by the power of the image as opposed to the word. A single arresting photograph may say more than hundreds of words. Radio journalists employ different skills and styles to newspaper journalists, since their words are destined to be heard rather than seen. Television journalism marries the spoken word with images.
TV, radio, newspaper and magazine journalists employ certain common techniques. The story has to be written - or spoken - clearly, simply and in a logical order. Unless the journalist is working on a feature, which may be prepared long in advance, there is rarely a chance to rewrite or reassemble the components of the story, or copy, as it is more properly called. The kernel of the story comes first. Then come the 'W questions' - Who?, When?, Where?, Why? and so on. Until those essentials are in the copy, journalists cannot add the extra information that is relevant to the needs or interests of their readership.
Different media have different audiences. Thus, when a major storm wipes out the tea harvest in India, the popular press will blazon the number killed, a provincial newspaper may relate the experiences of a local resident who happened to visiting the disaster area at the time, while a specialist financial newspaper will highlight the effect on tea prices and commodity markets. The papers serve different markets. Readers, viewers and listeners will patronize the media that addresses their interests. In Britain, newspapers are not owned by political parties, but some offer editorial support to particular persuasions.
Reporters purvey facts, or hard news. In editorials those facts are summarized and interpreted through opinions. Feature writers provide background to the news through research and opinion. This may take the form of investigative journalism in which writers may have to research for weeks, even months, before being able to tell the story. The Watergate scandal (1972-75), which involved the revelation of illegal activities by the administration of former US President Richard Nixon, was, in part, uncovered because of investigative journalists working for the Washington Post. Interpretative material, particularly in magazines, is usually written by journalists specializing in fields such as finance, sport, cookery, gardening, crime, fashion and entertainment, and writing in various styles appropriate to their readership.
A journalistic style is also found in book form and is sometimes referred to as new journalism. This genre relates actual events, interpreting and embellishing them by the use of subjective imagery. The style is typified by The Armies of the Night (1968) - an account of the 1967 Vietnam peace demonstrations in Washington by Norman Mailer (1923- ) - and In Cold Blood (1966) - a novel by Truman Capote (1924-84) based on multiple murders in Kansas.
Gathering news
Many stories are obtained by the media from news agencies. There are over 120 national agencies but five large international agencies dominate - Agence France-Presse, the American-based Associated Press and United Press International agencies, the Soviet agency Tass, and London-based Reuters. Agence France-Presse, for example, maintains news bureau in over 150 countries, employs nearly 1100 journalists and permanent correspondents and over 1700 freelance journalists. The principal newspapers maintain their own permanent correspondents in major world cities and post others to various locations as important news stories develop. Among the latter are war correspondents who accompany armed forces and describe the conflict. The World War II despatches from the Pacific of the American war correspondent Ernie Pyle (1900-45) are distinguished examples.
Journalists have been described as people who do not know much but do know how to find out everything. At international, national and even local level, journalists rely upon a trusted network of contacts. Journalists need to know the leading figures in their own particular specialism or area to contact them for either attributable or non-attributable news and comments. At the same time journalists develop an innate mistrust of their contacts. Governments and companies planning takeovers or unpopular developments are among those who try to manipulate the media, and people tend to distort suffering or pleasure in the drama of interview. The best journalists learn to recognize and then simply relate the basic truth.
(.txt)